Chapter 08
Human Development
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Exploring Human Development
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Socioemotional Development
Gender Development
Moral Development
Death, Dying, and Grieving
Active Development as a Lifelong Process
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Domains of Development
• Physical processes
• Involve changes in an individual’s biological nature
• Cognitive processes
• Involve changes in an individual’s thought,
intelligence, and language
• Socioemotional processes
• Involve changes in an individual’s relationships
with other people, changes in emotions, and
changes in personality
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Development
Pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities
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Prenatal
Infancy
Preschool/Early Childhood
School Age/Middle Childhood
Adolescence
Early Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Late Adulthood
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Conception – Birth
0 to 2
2 to 5/6
6 to 12
12 to 20
20 to 40
40 to 65
65 and older
Prenatal Physical Development
Three Stages of Development
• Germinal period (0-2 Weeks)
• Cell divisions, Attachment to uterine wall
• Embryonic period (3 Weeks-8 Weeks)
• Intensified cell differentiation
• Development of organs
• Fetal period (2 Months to Birth)
• Development includes movement, organ
functioning, weight gain
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Female Reproductive Organs
Fertilization
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• Egg is viable for
24 hours
• Sperm is viable for
3 to 5 days
• “Unsafe period” is from
day 9 to 15 if ovulation occurs on day 14
day 7 to 17 could be unsafe
Prenatal Physical Development
• Threats to fetus
• Teratogen
• Agent that causes birth defect
• Chemical substances: Nicotine, heroin, alcohol
• Certain illnesses: Rubella, sexually transmitted
diseases, HIV
• Preterm infant
• Risk for developmental difficulties
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Physical Development
• Reflexes
• Newborns come with genetically wired reflexes
• Sucking, swallowing, coughing, blinking, yawning
• Motor and perceptual skills
• Depend on each other
• Environmental experiences play a role in motor
development
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Physical Development
• Brain
• Infancy
• Branching of dendrites
• Myelination
• Childhood
• Increase in synaptic connections
• Pruning of unused neural connections
• Rapid growth in frontal lobe areas
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Dendritic Spreading
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Synaptic Density
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Physical Development in
Adolescence
• Adolescence
• Developmental period spanning the transition
from childhood to adulthood
• Begins around 10 to 12 years of age and ends at
18 to 21 years of age
• Characterized by dramatic physical changes
• Puberty
• Period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that
occurs mainly in early adolescence
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Pubertal Growth Spurt
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Physical Development in
Adolescence
• Adolescent brain
• Changes focus on
• Earlier development of the amygdala
• Involves emotion
• Later development of the prefrontal cortex
• Concerned with reasoning and decision making
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Developmental Changes…Brain
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Physical Development in
Adulthood
• Physical changes in early adulthood
• Peak physical development during 20s
• Physical changes in middle and late adulthood
• Many physical changes in the 40s or 50s, involve
changes in appearance
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Biological Theories of Aging
• Cellular-clock theory
• View that cells can divide a maximum of about
100 times
• As we age, our cells become less capable of dividing
• Free-radical theory
• People age because unstable oxygen molecules
known as free radicals are produced inside their
cells
• Damage done by free radicals may lead to a range of
disorders
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Biological Theories of Aging
• Hormonal stress theory
• Aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower
resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of
disease
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Aging and the Brain
• Adults can grow new brain cells throughout
life
• Brain has remarkable repair capability even in
late childhood
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Cognitive Development
• Refers to how thought, intelligence, and language
processes change as people mature
Cognition
• The operation of thinking and also to our cognitive skills
and abilities
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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
• Children think different at different ages
• Human beings use schemas to make sense of their
experience
• Two processes responsible for how people use and
adapt their schemas
• Assimilation
• Occurs when individuals incorporate new information
into existing schemes
• Accommodation
• Occurs when individuals adjust their schemas to new
information
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
• Sensorimotor stage
• Lasts from birth to about 2 years of age
• Infants construct an understanding of the world
by coordinating sensory experience
• Development of object permanence
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
• Preoperational stage
• Lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age
• Beginning of limited symbolic thinking
• Inability to perform operations, or reversible mental
representations
• Egocentric and intuitive thinking
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
• Concrete operational stage
• Lasts from 7 to 11 years of age
• Involves using operations
• Involves replacing intuitive reasoning
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
• Formal operational stage
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Last from 11 to 15 years of age
Continues through the adult years
Thinking is more abstract and logical
Idealistic
• Involves comparing how things are to how they might
be
• Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
• Developing hypotheses about ways to solve a problem
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Evaluating and Expanding on
Piaget’s Theory
• Vygotsky’s cognitive development in cultural
context
• Recognized that cognitive development is an
interpersonal process that happens in a cultural
context
• Interactions with others provide scaffolding
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Cognitive Processes in Adulthood
• Cognition in middle adulthood
• Crystallized intelligence
• Individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills
• Fluid intelligence
• Ability to reason abstractly
• Cognition in late adulthood
• Number of dimensions of intelligence decline in late
adulthood
• Some are maintained or may even increase, such as
wisdom
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Socioemotional Development
• Socioemotional processes
• Involve changes in an individual’s social
relationships, emotional life, and personal
qualities
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Socioemotional Development in
Infancy
• Ingredients of emotional and social processes
that are present very early in life
• Temperament
• Refers to an individual’s behavioral style and
characteristic ways of responding
• Easy,
• Slow-to-Warm-Up
• Difficult
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Socioemotional Development in
Infancy
• Attachment
• Close emotional bond between an infant and his
or her caregiver
• Development of Attachment
• Behaviorists
• Food
• Harry Harlow’s Monkeys
• Contact Comfort
• John Bowlby
• Predisposed
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Socioemotional Development in
Infancy
• Measurement of Attachment
• Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
• Secure
• Insecure – Anxious Avoidant
• Insecure – Anxious Ambivalent
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Erikson’s Eight Stages
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Erikson’s Eight Stages
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Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair
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Evaluating Erikson’s Theory
• Attempt to capture each stage with a single
concept leaves out other important
developmental tasks
• Main task for young adults
• Resolve the conflict between intimacy and isolation
• Another significant developmental task in early
adulthood involves careers and work
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Parenting and Childhood
Socioemotional Development
Authoritarian parenting
• Strict punitive style
Authoritative parenting
• Encourages the child to be independent but still places limits and controls on
behavior
Neglectful parenting
• Distinguished by a lack of parental involvement in the child’s life
Permissive parenting
• Places few limits on the child’s behavior
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Gender Development
• Gender
• Refers to the broad set of characteristics of people
as males and females
• Biology and gender development
• Humans normally have 46 chromosomes arranged
in pairs
• 23rd pair may have:
• Two X-shaped chromosomes, which produces a female
• Both an X-shaped and an (upside-down) Y-shaped
chromosome, which produces a male
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Cognitive Aspects of Gender
Development
• Gender schema
• Mental framework for understanding what it
means to be male or female in one’s culture
• Children acquire schemas through learning in the
social world
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Socioemotional Experience and
Gender Development
• Social experience influence gender
development
• Gender roles
• Involve expectations for how females and males should
think, act, and fee
• Represent beliefs about appropriate behavior for the sexes
• Gender similarities hypothesis
• Idea that men and women are much more similar than
they are different
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Moral development
• Changes that occur with age in people’s thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors regarding the principles
and values that guide them
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Kohlberg’s Theory
• Preconventional level
• Based on consequences of a behavior and on
punishments or rewards from external world
• Conventional level
• Abiding by parental or societal standards
• Postconventional level
• Recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the
options, and then develops an increasingly
personal moral code
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Critics of Kohlberg
• View does not adequately reflect concern for
other people and social bonds
• Justice perspective theory of Kohlberg
• Focuses on rights of individual
• Independent moral decisions
• Care perspective theory by Gilligan
• Views people in terms of connectedness to others
• Interpersonal communication
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