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Topics Covered in Chapter 9
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What is Public Opinion
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Opinion Leaders as Catalysts
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The Role of Mass Media
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Persuasion: Pervasive in Our Lives
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Factors in Persuasive Communication
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Propaganda
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Persuasion and Manipulation
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The Ethics of Persuasion
What is Public Opinion
Public opinion is somewhat elusive and extremely
difficult to measure at any given moment.
Public opinion is defined as 1) opinions on
controversial issues that one can express in
public without isolating oneself, 2) the sum of
individual opinions on an issue affecting those
individuals, or 3) a collection of views held by
persons interested in the subject.
Key ideas in understanding pubic opinion is the
concept of self-interest as well as the
importance of events in the formation of public
opinion.
Opinion Leaders as Catalysts
Opinion leaders serve as catalysts for the
formation of public opinion through their
knowledge and ability to articulate ideas about
specific issues.
Sociologists describe them as:
(1) Highly interested in a subject or issue
(2) Better informed on an issue than the average
person
(3) Avid consumers of mass media
(4) Early adopters of new ideas
(5) Good organizers who can get other people to
take action
Opinion Leaders as Catalysts cont
Sociologists have defined two types of leaders.
First, formal opinion leaders or power leaders
have positions of power and tapped for
information about specific issue related to their
areas of responsibility or concern.
Second, informal opinion leaders have clout with
peers because of some special characteristic.
Public relations professionals try to influence
these leaders as they try to influence the public
at large.
Opinion Leaders as Catalysts cont
With the two-step flow theory of communication, it
is understood that public opinion is formed by
the views of people who have taken the time to
sift information, evaluate it, and form an opinion
that is expressed to others.
With the multiple-step flow model opinion makers
who derive their large amounts of information
from the mass media and other sources share it
with people their circle of acquaintances.
The Role of Mass Media
Via the mass media, public relations people
become major players in forming public opinion
because they often provide the mass media with
the information in the first place.
The following theories can help practitioners
understand mass media effects:
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Agenda Setting Theory
Media Dependency Theory
Framing Theory
Conflict Theory
Agenda Setting
Agenda setting is the process by which the media
communicate the relative importance of various issues to
the public. (Rogers and Dearings 1988)
Policy
agenda
Media
agenda
Public agenda
Corporate
agenda
全球传媒体系的几种法则
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议程设置与新闻话语权
《大众传媒的议程设置功能》：人们倾向于关注大众传媒
所关注的问题，并依据媒介对各种问题的重视程度而确立
自己看待事物的优先顺序。
案例：中美撞击事件
第一经验环境，第二经验环境
宣传是指推进或破坏某一事业的观点或信息的传播。
新闻框架
框架是指人们在适应周围的社会过程中，逐渐形成自己的
认知框架，并按照它来调整自己的行为的期望值。
案例：关于非典的报道
Persuasion: Pervasive in Our Lives
Persuasion has been around since the dawn of
human history.
Persuasion is used to 1) change or neutralize
hostile opinions, 2) crystallize latent opinions
and positive attitudes and 3) conserve favorable
opinions.
The dominant view of public relations is one of
persuasive communication actions performed
on behalf of clients.
Factors Pervasive Communication
A number of factors are involved in persuasive
communication, and the public relations
practitioner should be knowledgeable about
each one, including
(1) Audience analysis
(2) Source credibility
(3) Appeal to self-interest
(4) Clarity of message
(5) Timing and context
(6) Audience participation
(7) Suggestions for action
(8) Content and structure of messages
(9) Persuasive speaking
Propaganda
Propaganda is defined as the deliberate and
systematic attempt to shape perceptions,
manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to
achieve a response that furthers the desired intent
of the propagandist.
Propaganda has its roots in 17th century, when the
Roman Catholic Church set up the “congregatio
de propaganda” or congregation for propagating
the faith.
In the 20th century, it took on a negative connotation.
Today, propaganda connotes falsehood, lies, deceit,
disinformation, and duplicity.
Propaganda cont.
Advertising and public relations messages for
commercial purposes use several techniques
commonly associated with propaganda,
including:
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Plain folks
Testimonial
Bandwagon
Card stacking
Transfer
Glittering generalities
Propaganda cont.
Plain folks is an approach often used by
individuals to show humble beginnings and
empathy with the average citizen. Political
candidates, in particular, are quite fond of telling
about their “humble” beginnings.
Testimonial is frequently used device to achieve
credibility, as discussed earlier. A well-known
expert, popular celebrity, or average citizen
gives testimony about the value of a product or
the wisdom of a decision.
Propaganda cont.
Bandwagon is the implication or direct statement
that everyone wants the product or that the idea
has overwhelming support.
Card stacking is the selection of facts and data to
build an overwhelming case on one side of the
issue, while concealing the other side. The
advertising industry says a ban on beer
advertising would lead to enormous reductions
in network sports programming and a ban on
cigarette advertising would kill many magazines.
Propaganda cont.
Transfer is the technique of associating the person,
product, or organization with something that
has high status, visibility, or credibility.
Glittering generalities is the technique of
associating a cause, product, or idea with
favorable abstractions such as freedom, justice,
democracy, and the American way.
Persuasion and Manipulation
Public relations practitioners ability to use
persuasion leads to charges that they have
great power to influence and manipulate people.
In reality, the effectiveness of persuasive
techniques is greatly exaggerated.
The limitations on effective persuasive messages
can be listed as:
(1) Lack of message penetration
(2) Competing messages
(3) Self-selection
(4) Self-perception
The Ethics of Persuasion
The use of persuasive techniques calls for some
additional guidelines to ensure ethical criteria
are followed when persuasive devices are
utilized by a public relations professionals.
Public relations professionals should be more
than technicians and should be able to spot
inaccurate information provided to them by their
employer or client.
Persuasive messages require truth, honesty, and
candor.