Learning Processes
Implicit Theories, Goal
Orientations, and Perceived
Competence
Vicki Jurist, Chris Lombardo, Aqiyl Henry
Research Question
How do implicit theories of
intelligence, goal orientations, and
perceived competence affect
academic achievement?
Introduction
Prior studies have indicated that
students’ beliefs about themselves and
their academic competence affect
classroom achievement.
Motivational Factors of Achievement
Beliefs and Learning
Implicit theories of intelligence
Academic goal orientations
Perceived competence
Implicit Theories of Intelligence
Entity Theory
Intelligence is fixed, and cannot be
changed.
Individual often avoids a difficult task
in fear of looking incompetent.
Implicit Theories of Intelligence
Incremental Theory
Intelligence is malleable; can be
increased and developed.
Individual increases effort as a task
becomes more difficult.
Implicit Theories of Learning:
Incremental or Entity
Goal
Orientation/Achievement
Goals
Goal Orientation
Achievement Goals
Task goals
Performance-approach goals
Performance-avoidance goals
Task Goal
Directed towards acquiring new skills
and improving knowledge
Leads to adaptive behaviors
Performance-approach Goal
Directed towards the demonstration of
competence
Leads to maladaptive behaviors
Performance-avoidance Goal
Aimed at avoiding the demonstration
of incompetence
Leads to maladaptive behaviors
Differential Effects
Performance
Approach
Goal
Performance
Avoidance
Goal
Perceived Competence
Motivational construct linked to implicit
theories of intelligence and achievement
goals
Confidence in ability
adaptive behavior
(task & performance-approach)
Doubt in ability
maladaptive behavior
(performance-avoidance)
Hypotheses
(A) task, performance-approach, and
performance-avoidance scales will factor
separately
(B) incremental theory will be positively
correlated with task and performanceapproach goal orientations and negatively
with performance-avoidance goal
orientation
Hypotheses
(C) incremental theory and approach goal
orientations (task and performanceapproach) would be positive predictors of
academic achievement.
(D) perceived competence would moderate
the relationship between implicit theories,
goal orientations and academic
achievement.
Methods
Methods
Participants:
451 students from Northern Greece
Middle class, white
10 – 13 years of age
Working class / middle class
89% from 1st marriage families
Methods
Instruments:
Self-report measuring 4 items of implicit theory
of intelligence
18 item inventory measuring three goal
orientation
7 item subscale assessing students’ confidence
in their own ability
Academic performance measures
Methods
Procedure:
Administered during class hours
Voluntary
Responses confidential to the study team
Independent and Dependent Variables
Variables
Dependent
Independent
Academic Achievement
Perceived Competence
Academic Achievement
Gender
Academic Achievement
School Level
Perceived Competence
Task Orientation
Perceived Competence
Performance-approach
Perceived Competence
Performance-avoidance
Incremental Views
Task Orientation
School Level
Incremental Views
School Level
Task Orientation
School Level
Performance-avoidance
Task Orientation
Performance-avoidance
Performance-avoidance
Performance-approach
Task Orientation
Performance-approach
Gender
Performance-approach
School Level
Performance-approach
Incremental Views
Performance-approach
*p<.01
Independent and Dependent Variables
Inc
Task
Performance
Avoidance
Performance
Approach
Gender
School Level
Perceived
Competence
Academic
Achievement
Results
Exploratory Factor Analysis
Exploratory Factor Analysis
Do determine if the 18 Item Inventory,
which was tested in a specific cultural
setting, could be externally valid,
factor analysis was applied, using
oblique rotation.
Factor Analysis
Factor analysis.
Used to validate a scale.
Used to select a subset of variables
from a larger set.
Oblique Rotation
A category of rotation methods.
used to make the output of data more
understandable.
Outliers
Extreme numbers in an array of
numbers that don’t seem to fit with the
body of numbers.
Factor Loadings
Factor loadings.
The minimum loadings used, .45.
Internal Consistency
Was determined by using Cronbach
coefficient alpha.
Invented by professor Cronbach, to
determine error.
Variable Correlations
Pearson Product-Moment Analysis and
Maximum Likelihood method, were
used to identify the correlation and
causality among the variables.
Pearson Product-Moment Correlations
Incremental views were positively related to task
orientation (.16), and performance-approach goals
(.12).
Perceived competence was positively correlated to
task orientation (.30) and performance-approach
(.25), and negatively correlated to performanceavoidance goals (-.18).
Academic achievement was positively correlated
with perceived competence (.52), task (.23), and
performance-approach (.17) goals, (p.284).
Pearson Product-Moment Correlations
Pearson Product-Moment Correlations
1
2
1. Incremental views
2. Task Orientation
.16*
3
4
3. Performance-approach
4. Performance-avoidance
5. Perceived Competence
.12*
.04
.03
.27*
.09 .24*
.30* .25* -.18
6. Academic achievement
P<.01
.09
.23* .17* -.09
5
.52*
Maximum Likelihood Method
From correlations to causality.
Multiple indexes of fit were used in
evaluating the fit of the model.
Variable Correlations
Maximum Likelihood Method
Inc
.16
Task
.26
Perceived
Competence
-.26
.11
.27
.08
-.15
.47
Performance
Avoidance
.25
Academic
Achievement
.24
Performance
Approach
-.27
-.18
-.11
.16
Gender
-.35
-.33
School Level
Variable Correlations
Variables
Dependent
Independent
Academic Achievement
Perceived Competence
.47*
Academic Achievement
Gender
.15*
Academic Achievement
School Level
-.36*
Perceived Competence
Task Orientation
.26*
Perceived Competence
Performance-approach
.24*
Perceived Competence
Performance-avoidance
-.26*
Incremental Views
Task Orientation
.16*
School Level
Incremental Views
-.15*
School Level
Task Orientation
-.33*
School Level
Performance-avoidance
-.18*
Task Orientation
Performance-avoidance
.08
Performance-avoidance
Performance-approach
.25*
Task Orientation
Performance-approach
.27*
Gender
Performance-approach
-.11*
School Level
Performance-approach
-.27*
Incremental Views
Performance-approach
.11*
*p<.01
Correlations- Goal Orientations
Task orientation was positively
correlated with performance-approach
goals, at .27.
Performance-approach and
performance-avoidance were positively
related at .24.
Goal Orientations
and Academic Achievement
Perceived Competence mediated
achievement goals effect on academic
achievement.
Task and performance-approach had a
positive indirect effect on academic
achievement
Performance-avoidance goal orientation had
negative indirect effect on achievement.
Incremental Views,Gender, School Level
and Academic Achievement
Incremental beliefs were positively
correlated with task and performance goal
orientation.
Gender had a direct positive effect on
academic achievement.
School level had a direct negative effect on
academic achievement.
Discussion
Purpose
Differing effects of performanceapproach and performance-avoidance
goals on academic achievement.
Identify relationships among variables.
Hypothesis 1
Task goal orientation, performanceapproach and performance-avoidance
scales will factor differently.
Hypothesis 1 - Results
Achievement goals did factor
separately.
Existence of two independent
dimensions of performance goals.
Possible for an individual to have a
mixture of goals.
Achievement Goals and School Level
Elementary School students.
Middle school students.
Academic motivation and performance
declines during early adolescence.
Incremental Views and School Level
Elementary students tended to adopt
incremental views (intelligence is
modifiable).
High School students tended to adopt
an entity view ( intelligence is fixed).
Hypothesis 2
Incremental views will be positively
correlated with task and performanceapproach goals orientations and
negatively with performanceavoidance goal orientation.
Hypothesis 2 - Results
Incremental views/beliefs positively correlated
with task goal orientation. P. 287. Middle of the 4th
paragraph. (YES)
No correlation between incremental views and
performance-avoidance goals. (P. 287. Middle of
the 4th paragraph.) This did not support
hypothesized negative correlation. (YES)
? -No correlation between incremental views and
performance-approach goals. (P. 287. Middle of
the 4th paragraph.) (This did not support
hypothesized positive correlation).
Possible Contradiction
No association (correlation) between incremental
views and the two performance goal orientations
(p.287 discussion, 4th parargraph).
Incremental views were positively correlated with
task and performance-approach goal orientations
only (p.286, 2nd paragraph, last sentence).
Figure 1(p.285), identified .16* correlation
coefficient between task Inc. & Task, and
identified .11* correlation coefficient between Inc.
& Perf. Approach.
Possible Contradiction
Seemed like incremental views of intelligence was
only being given correlation to task goal
orientation in the Discussion section, which
contradicted the data of the Results section, to
support “incremental beliefs were positively
related to task orientation (Dweck, 1986) and the
statement that “the implicit belief that ability is
increasable seemed to orient individuals toward
pursuing the learning goal of developing that
ability further”( Gialamas & Leondari, p. 287).
Possible Contradiction
Then it was later stated:
? - Implicit theories of intelligence are related
to students’ achievement goals (only
incremental views were tested) – contradicts
earlier statement.
? - Achievement goals: task, performanceapproach, and performance-avoidance goals,
(p.279-280).
Hypothesis 3
Incremental theory and approach goal
orientations (task and performanceapproach) would be positive predictors
of academic achievement.
Hypothesis 3 – Results
No relation (correlation) between Inc. and
academic achievement ( did not support
hypothesized positive correlation).
Did not support previous research.
Reason: Incremental views indirectly influence
academic achievement through the adoption of a
specific goal orientation
Task and performance-approach were indirect
positive predictors of academic achievement.
Hypothesis 4
Perceived competence would moderate
the relationship between implicit
theories, goal orientations and
academic achievement.
Hypothesis 4 - Results
Did support perceived competence as a
moderating variable between the task orientation,
performance-approach and performanceavoidance, and academic achievement.
Did not support perceived competence as a
moderating variable between incremental views
and academic achievement, as hypothesized.
(There was no correlation between incremental
views and academic achievement).
Theories of Intelligence
Using data indicating incremental views are
positively correlated with task and
performance-approach goals:
Theories of intelligence seem to predict a
student’s goal orientation.
Incremental views orient individuals to
either task or performance-approach goals.
Task Orientation
Presumed to result in behaviors
conducive to long-term
accomplishment and investment.
Personal mastery.
Feeling of competence while engaged
in achievement activities.
Performance-approach goals and
Task Orientation
Results lead to the conclusion that
performance-approach and task goal
orientations facilitate academic
achievement (supported by previous
research).
Performance-approach goals and
Task Orientation
Students need to pursue both task and
performance goals if they are to
succeed (Wentzel).
Students do not have one or the other
goal orientation, but both at the same
time.
Implications
Classroom environments influence the adoption
and reinforcement of goal orientations.
Environments marked by interpersonal
competition and normative-based testing influence
the adoption of either performance-approach or
performance-avoidance goals.
Environments that emphasize acquiring personal
mastery and learning from one’s mistakes
influence the adoption of task orientation, ex. Dr.
Moran’s teaching environment.
Implications
Teachers’ can modify roles and
instructional strategies to develop
environments that encourage students
to learn from mistakes, put more effort
into learning, feel confident in
academically challenging situations,
and develop personal mastery.
Limitations
Longitudinal study needed, no casual links
could be firmly established.
Domain specificity was a concern. Different
domains (i.e. self-esteem, phys. appearance,
social & athletic competence, cognitive
ability) may effect theories of intelligence
and goal orientations differently (adding
confounding variable).
Reactions
Reactions
What kind of ideas did this article make you
think about?
How social relationship goals influence
achievement goals.
Development of classroom styles to foster task
and performance-approach goals.
Understand and cultivate student’s goal
orientations.
Reactions
Did you think this article was
interesting? Was it well written?
The complexity of the article initially
impeded clarity.
Professionally oriented.
Reactions
What do you think are the next steps?
Address entity theory more adequately
Provide a more comprehensive discussion
relating to task goals and incremental theory
Allow for domain specificity of implicit
theories and goal orientation
Identify whether they recognized limits within
their environment
Reactions
What do you think are the next steps?
Address entity theory more adequately
Provide a more comprehensive discussion
relating to task goals and incremental theory
Allow for domain specificity of implicit
theories and goal orientation
Identify whether they recognized limits within
their environment