Fons Trompenaars and “Riding the
Waves of Culture” (1993)
Parameters:
• Relationships and rules; Universalism
vs Particularism
• The group and the individual;
Collectivism vs Individualism
• Feelings and relationships; Neutrality
vs Affectivity
• How far we get involved; Specificity vs
Diffuseness
Trompenaars’ parameters
(forts):
• How we accord Status
• Time orientation
• Relation to Nature
Explanations
Universalism vs. Particularism
Universalism: the belief that ideas and practices
can be applied everywhere without modification
- Germany, USA, Canada, Switzerland, Scandinavia and the UK
Particularism: the belief that circumstances
dictate how ideas and practices should be
applied (exceptions)
– Spain, Japan, Italy, South Korea, Venezuela, Russia
and Malaysia
e.g. “favoritism should be avoided”
Neutral vs. Affective
To show or not to show your emotions?
Neutral: emotions are held in check
Japan and the U.S.
Affective: emotions are openly and naturally
expressed
Mexico, Netherlands, and Switzerland
e.g. “feeling upset at work”
The amount of emotion we show, not what we feel.
•Neutral cultures see control of the feelings as a sign of civilization.
•Affective cultures allow for emotion to be expressed quite openly.
e.g.
Americans - tend to exhibit emotion, but separate it from objective and rational
behind decisions.
Italians and Southern European nations in general both tend to exhibit emotion
and but don’t separate them from the objective and rationale.
Dutch and Swedes tend not to exhibit and to separate.
In Anglo-Saxon (predominantly neutral) cultures - impolite to interrupt
In Latin (affective) cultures- more interruptions are OK
In some Oriental (neutral) cultures there is often a silence
between A speaking and B starting. This is to digest what has been said and
is a sign of respect
5
Specificy vs. Diffuseness
Specific: individuals have a large public space
and a small private space
UK, U. S., and Switzerland
Diffuse: both public and private space are
similar in size
Venezuela, China, Spain, Nepal, Indonesia, Thailand,
Malaysia and Nigeria
E.g. Hate the deed but love the doer (Some cultures prefer to
stick to the facts of a situation and not to enter into close
relationships, while others want to get to know people better
before doing any business)
Achievement vs. Ascription
Achievement: people are accorded status
based on how well they perform their functions
U.S., Switzerland, and UK
Ascription: status is attributed based on who or
what a person is
Venezuela and China
e.g. Titles, age, family background- young or old
representative?
Individualism-collectivism
≈ Hofstede
Individualism - a prime orientation to the self
Collectivism - a prime orientation to common goals and
objectives
Individualist cultures: North America, Germany,
Scandinavia, the UK and Australia.
More collectivist cultures - e.g. Nepal, the Middle East
Past or Present-Oriented Vs. Future-Oriented
Past or present-oriented : emphasize the history
and tradition of the culture
• Venezuela, Indonesia, and Spain
Future-oriented: emphasize the opportunities
and limitless scope
that any agreement can have
• U. S., Italy, and Germany
Sequential vs. Synchronous Time
Sequential: time is prevalent, people tend to
do only one activity at a time, keep
appointments strictly, and prefer to follow plans
e.g. U.S., Sweden
Synchronous: time is prevalent, people tend
to do more than one activity at a time,
appointments are approximate, and schedules
are not important
e.g. Mexico, France
Nature
Inner Directed
Believe in controlling outcomes
– U.S.
Outer Directed
Believe in letting things take their own
course
– Asian Cultures