Classroom Assessment
A Practical Guide for Educators
by Craig A. Mertler
Chapter 1
Assessment in Elementary and
Secondary Classrooms
Introduction
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Day-to-day work of teachers is multifaceted.
No responsibility is more important than assessing
student performance.
Teachers must be able to communicate academic and
social performance and progress to a variety of
audiences (including students, parents, administrators,
the general public, etc.).
Assessments and evaluative judgments must be
accurate in order to prevent communication of
misinformation to audiences.
Some Basic Definitions
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Assessment system: All systematic methods and
procedures used to obtain information about students;
basis for decisions.
Evaluation: Use of assessment information to make
judgments.
Measure: Process involving a structured situation
where specific characteristics are sampled; results in a
numerical or narrative score (also known as assessment
method).
Test: Formal set of questions or tasks that address
particular cognitive capabilities learned in specific
subject areas.
Some Basic Definitions
Administration of
tests and use of
other assessment
methods
result in the
accumulation
of
evaluation.
assessment
results,
which provide
information for
Formal vs. Informal Assessment
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Formal Assessment Methods
• planned in advance of their administration
• lack spontaneity
• typically occur at the end of instruction
• students are aware of these methods
• examples include chapter tests, final exams, graded
homework, etc.
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Informal Assessment Methods
• more spontaneous; less obvious
• typically occur during instruction
• examples include teacher observations and questions
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Assessment
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Quantitative Assessment Methods
• yield numerical scores
• major types include teacher-constructed tests,
standardized tests, checklists, and rating scales
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Qualitative Assessment Methods
• yield verbal descriptions of characteristics
• main types include teacher observations, anecdotal
records, and informal questions
Formative vs. Summative
Evaluation
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Formative Evaluation
• decision making that occurs during instruction for
purposes of making adjustments to instruction
• more of an evaluation of one’s own teaching rather
than of students’ work
• may be based on formal or informal methods
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Summative Evaluation
• occurs at the end of instruction (e.g., end of chapter,
end of unit, end of semester)
• typically used for administrative decisions (e.g.,
assigning grades, promoting/retaining students)
• based solely on formal assessment methods
Standardized vs.
Nonstandardized Assessment
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Standardized Assessment Methods
• administered, scored, and interpreted in identical
fashion for all examinees
• purpose is to allow educators to compare students
from different schools, states, etc.
• examples include SAT, GRE, ITBS, CAT, PRAXIS
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Nonstandardized Assessment Methods
• typically made by teachers for classroom use
• purpose is to determine extent to which subject
matter is being taught and learned
Norm-Referenced vs.
Criterion-Referenced Assessment
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Norm-Referenced Assessment Methods
• show where an individual student’s performance lies
in relation to other students
• standardized tests are usually norm-referenced
• results are quantitative
• student performance is compared to norm group
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Criterion-Referenced Assessment Methods
• compare student performance to preestablished
criteria or objectives
• results are quantitative, qualitative, or both
• also known as mastery, objectives-referenced, or
competency tests
Traditional vs. Alternative
Assessment
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Traditional Assessment Methods
• procedures such as pencil-and-paper tests and
quizzes
• only one correct response to each test item
• easily and efficiently assess many students
simultaneously
• encourage memorization of facts, etc.
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Alternative Assessment Methods
• more appropriate for hands-on, experiential learning
• include authentic assessment (involve real
application of skills beyond instructional context)
Objective vs. Subjective
Assessment
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Objective Assessment Methods
• “objective” refers to method of scoring (no judgments)
• contain only one correct answer
• examples: multiple-choice, true-false, matching items
• also known as structured-response, selected-response,
teacher-supplied items
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Subjective Assessment Methods
• scoring involves teachers’ subjective judgments
• several possible correct responses or single correct
response with several ways to arrive at that answer
• examples: short-answer and essay items
• also known as open-ended, constructed-response,
supply-type items
Purposes of Assessment
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Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Instruction
• assessment can provide information to guide
instructional decisions
• prior to instruction—planning for instruction and
subsequent assessment
• during instruction—determining effectiveness of
instruction and whether reinstruction is needed
• following instruction—determining if revisions are
necessary for next period, next class meeting, or next
year
Purposes of Assessment
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Diagnosing Student Difficulties
• assessment prior to instruction in order to determine
what students know and can do
• important in helping teachers plan for instruction
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Placing Students
• assessment for purposes of grouping students based
on ability, organizing students for group work,
sequencing of coursework, etc.
Purposes of Assessment
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Providing Feedback (Formative)
• assessment can provide feedback to students
regarding their academic progress
• important to provide this type of feedback in an
ongoing manner
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Grading and Evaluating Learning (Summative)
• formal assessments of learning following the
completion of instruction
• typically used to communicate results to students,
parents, and others
Ethical Issues Related to
Assessment
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Teacher Responsibilities in the Classroom
• ensuring that students are properly motivated to do
their best on any type of assessment method, that all
types of assessment methods are administered fairly,
and results are interpreted appropriately
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Motivating Students
• should not try to trick students on classroom
assessments
• provide encouragement
• familiarize students with assessment procedures
(i.e., develop students’ “testwiseness” skills)
Ethical Issues Related to
Assessment
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Test Administration
• establishes a positive environment within the
assessment situation
• discourages cheating
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Interpretation of Test Results
• tests do not result in measures of the entire person
• interpretation should be limited to only those skills
measured by a particular test
• avoids overgeneralizations
Ethical Standards
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The Standards for Teacher Competence in the Educational
Assessment of Students (1990)
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The Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (1988)
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The Family and Education Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
of 1974