Applied Behavior Analysis and
Teaching Children with Autism
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Characteristics of Applied
Behavior Analysis
1.
2.
3.
4.
Massed vs. mixed trials
Errorless prompting
Differential reinforcement
Behavioral momentum
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Characteristics of Applied
Behavior Analysis
1. Emphasis on “causes” of behavior in
applied settings (functions)
2. Emphasis on observable, measurable
behavior
3. Science requires repeated
measurement of behavior
4. Change environment to change
behavior
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Characteristics of Applied
Behavior Analysis cont.
5. Methods and rationales can be defined precisely
6. Socially significant effects [size and importance
of behavior] sought
7. High value placed on accountability for everyone
involved in the behavior change effort
8. Treatment strategies can be refined and adjusted
based on objective data of progress
9. Address separate and specific behavioral deficits
& excesses (language, social skills, behavior
problems)
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Terminology
• SD — Discriminative Stimulus: A
stimulus (i.e., instruction), in the
presence of which, a particular
response is likely to be reinforced
• SR+ — Reinforcement: The
process by which some
consequent stimulus—or removal
of—increases the probability of a
behavior’s occurrence
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“ABC’s” of Behavior
• Antecedents - What happens before
• Behavior/Response
• Consequence - What happens
after/during
“ABC” Model
SD
Antecedent
Instruction
Behavior
Response
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SR+
Consequence
Reinforcer
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Teaching Methodology
Common behavioral approaches
• Discrete Trial Training (e.g., Lovaas, 1981)
• Highly structured, very specific
• Natural Language Paradigm (e.g., Koegel, O’Dell,
& Koegel, 1987); Natural Environment Training
(Sundberg & Partington, 1998)
• Incidental, specific to child’s reinforcers
• Task Analysis (Axelrod, 1983)
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Discrete Trial Training
• DTT uses Applied Behavior
Analytic (ABA) technology.
They are not the same
thing.
• Discrete trial training
(DTT) is only one method
for teaching skills to
children with autism and
other developmental
disabilities.
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Discrete Trial Training
• A discrete trial method is not to be considered the
only way to teach new behavior; in fact many
behaviors do not lend themselves to discrete trial
training, and must be taught using alternate
methods (e.g., task analysis training).
• Teaching should occur outside the DTT format as
well.
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Key Features
• Several key features make a discrete trial teaching
method effective:
• A trial comprises “a single teaching unit” (Lovaas,
1981)
• Concise and clearly defined - Provides clear
expectations for the teacher and the student.
Lovaas, O.I. (1981). Teaching developmentally disabled children: The ME book.
Austin: Pro-Ed, Inc.
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Key Features
• The method allows for repeated presentations of
trials, which appears to be critical for many
children with developmental disabilities.
• Since a trial is clearly and objectively defined, a
student’s performance is easily measured.
Lovaas, O.I. (1981). Teaching developmentally disabled children: The ME book.
Austin: Pro-Ed, Inc.
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Discrete Trial Training
• Discrete trial training is
typically provided in 1:1
direct instruction, but is
also useful in providing
incidental instruction and
teaching in the context of
various activities.
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Discrete Trial Training
•
Major parts to a discrete trial:
 The Trainer’s Presentation/Instruction
• Clear, concise and phrased as a statement
• Given only once
• Not too many words
• Consistency in wording initially, vary later
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Discrete Trial Training
•
Major parts to a discrete trial:
 The Child’s Response
• Correct
• Incorrect
• None
• Allow 3-5 seconds
• When incorrect or none, intervene
(prompting)
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Discrete Trial Training
•
Major parts to a discrete trial:
 The Consequence
• Correct - Immediately present enthusiastic
praise with other identified reinforcers.
• Incorrect/None - Prompt/guidance (may
need to re-start the teaching sequence;
reinforce?)
Maurice, Green & Luce (Eds.). Behavioral Intervention for Young Children with
Autism: A Manual for Parents and Professionals.
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Behavior Modification vs. ABA
• Does ABA create robotic behavior?
• Does ABA use “bribery” in the form of goodies to
get kids to perform?
• Does ABA tout dramatic treatment effects, but only
in isolated environments?
• Is ABA concerned with behavior in the natural
environment?
• Does ABA rely on punishment as a primary
treatment method?
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Prompting
SD
Instruction
SR+
Prompt
Response
Reinforcer
• The prompt gets the desired response so that it
may be reinforced.
• The objective is always to minimize, fade, and
eliminate prompts.
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Prompting Techniques
• Types of Prompts
• Verbal/Gestural
• Positional
• Model
• Touch
• Physical
• Other
• Prompt Fading
• Gradually removing a prompt to facilitate
successful and independent performance
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Prompting
• Use correction trials for prompted responses
• Errorless prompting
• Antecedent intervention (not how to respond to
mistakes, how to prevent mistakes)
• New skills— “most-to-least” (errorless
prompting)
• Older skills— “least-to-most”
• Prompt fading: Transferring stimulus control
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Prompt Fading
• Fade prompts on two levels:
• Latency—time between SD and prompt
• Topography—intrusiveness of the prompt (type of
prompt)
• Physical (partial to full)
• Gestures (demonstrations to small motions)
• Sounds (demonstrations to one phoneme)
• Positional (changing the placement of items)
• Other (pictures, lines, mats)
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Prompt Fading
Desired Response:
• Receptive Instruction
i.e., “Touch your head.”
Prompt:
Full physical
Partial physical
Touch
Model all of response
Model part of response
Gesture
Most-to-Least
Least-to-Most
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Prompt Fading
Desired Response:
• Labeling
i.e., “What is this?”
Prompt:
Full model
Two phonemes
One phoneme
Mouth movement
Most-to-Least
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Prompt Fading
Desired Response:
• Eye Contact
Prompt:
Withhold activity
Hold R+ near
Say student’s name
Say “Look at me.”
Physical prompt
Most-to-Least
Least-to-Most
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Reinforcement
• R+ should be varied in type,
intensity, and duration
• Differential R+: “Better” R+ for
“better” responses
• “Boredom” is often satiation w/ R+
• Track and record different effective
reinforcers
• Always pair social praise w/ other
reinforcers
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Examples of Reinforcers
Reinforcing
Dimension of
Stimulus
Examples
Social
Smiles, being with another person, praise,
playing games with others
Gustatory
Taste or consumption related: Food, drinks,
candy
Auditory
Music, singing, sounds
Visual
Colors, bright lights, pictures, things that
spin
Adapted from Fovel, J.T. (2002). The ABA Companion
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Examples of Reinforcers
Reinforcing
Dimension of
Stimulus
Examples
Tactile
Hugs, tickles, massage, roughhousing,
vibration
Proprioceptive
Throwing a ball, stretching, exercising
Olfactory
Smells: flowers, perfume, food smells
Vestibular
Rocking, swinging, bicycle, jumping
Adapted from Fovel, J.T. (2002). The ABA Companion
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A Language Training Environment
(Sunberg & Partington. 1995. Teaching Language to Autistic and
Developmentally Disabled Children.)
• Language training is viewed as the key feature by
teachers, parents support personnel, etc.
• Language training is incorporated into all other
activities (e.g.,self-care, play, non-verbal behavior).
• There must be a large number of daily trials under a
variety of stimulus and motivational conditions.
• All relevant types of language training trials should be
conducted (including requesting, labeling,
conversation, etc.), not just receptive language.
• Data should be collected on performance.
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Analysis of Verbal Behavior
• Actively addresses one of the key skill deficit areas
for students with autism: communication/language
• Based upon B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (1957)
• Verbal behavior is defined by its FUNCTION rather
than form.
• Same word can have different meanings based on
conditions under which it is acquired
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Functional Language
Development
• Words can have different functions at different
times.
• Requesting
• Labeling
• Echoing
• Conversations
• Early language instruction should always start with
requesting.
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Functions of Language
Want pencil
See pencil
“Write with”
Hear “pencil”
“pencil”
“pencil”
“pencil”
“pencil”
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receive pencil MAND
praise
TACT
praise
INTRAVERBAL
praise
ECHOIC
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Verbal Operants
1. Mand: Asking for reinforcers
(request)
2. Tact: Naming or identifying
objects, actions, etc. (label)
3. Echoic: Repeating what is heard
4. Intraverbal: Answering
questions in response to verbal
stimuli (conversation)
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Verbal Operants
5. Textual: Reading written words
6. Imitation: Copying someone’s motor movements
7. Receptive: Following instructions
Stop!
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Natural Environment Training
• Stimulus items are chosen by the student (increased
attention, motivation)
• “Natural” (rather than contrived) reinforcers
• Ideal conditions to teach requesting
• Interaction and instruction take place within the
context of using those items
• Reduces the need for elaborate generalization
• Reduces the potential for inappropriate behavior
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Natural Environment Teaching
Student: ________________
Item:
Imtatn
Activity: ________________
Intvbl
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Mand
RFFC
Recept
Tact
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Reinforcement
• One of the most important components of discrete trial.
• Differential Reinforcement
 Your reinforcement efforts should be based on the
student’s level of independent responding and attention.
That is, if the student performs the task independently,
the level of reinforcement should be higher than if
prompts are required.
 there is a positive consequence if they can do the task
without assistance.
 Helps to avoid prompt dependency.
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Reinforcement
• Needs to be varied in type, intensity, and duration.
 Much of what people describe as boredom can actually be
looked at as satiation with the environment and the
reinforcers.
 Develop a section in the student’s notebook to log the
reinforcers you have tried and found to be effective.
 Remember, just because a student doesn’t find an item or
activity rewarding the first time you introduce it, this
doesn’t mean that he/she never will. Keep experimenting
and be creative.
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Reinforcement
• Limit the use of primary reinforcers to
independently correct trials.
• Social reinforcers should always be paired with
primary rewards.
Thereby the student learns to enjoy a variety of
secondary reinforcers.
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Reinforcement vs. Bribery
• Do not use rewards as bribery.
Do not tell the student in advance about the
reinforcer he will receive (dangling a carrot).
Do not remind the child of the reinforcer he
would be getting if disruptive behaviors were not
occurring.
Do not offer additional reinforcers when
behavior escalates in attempts to calm him down.
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Prompting
• Prompts should occur before the behavior, not after
the behavior as a consequence for incorrect
responding
• Fade prompts as soon as possible
 while ensuring correct and errorless responding
• Errorless Prompting
With new skills, use an adequate prompt
immediately. With maintenance skills, allow a
few-second delay.
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Prompt Fading
• First fade physical dimension of prompt. If you do
have to use a physical/full verbal prompt,
immediately represent and try for an independent
response or a less intrusive prompt.
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Introducing New Targets
1. Transfer Procedure
Instructor: “Swim little
STUDENT: “fish”
Instructor: “What’s this?”
STUDENT: “fish”
“
2. Errorless Prompting (prompt with a 0 second delay)
Instructor: “What’s this? Fish”
STUDENT: “fish”
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Pre-teaching/Pre-trial Prompts
Some children will respond well to pre-teaching or
“pre-trial” prompts
Prompt is provided before the SD
Instructor:
“This is a fish? What is it?”
STUDENT: “Fish”
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Non-Responding
If the child does not respond within 2-3 seconds…
1. give him the correct answer
2. wait for him to imitate you
3. ask the question again to get an unprompted response if
possible.
Instructor:
“What do we sleep in?”
STUDENT: <No response for 2-3 seconds after SD>
Instructor:
“Bed.”
STUDENT:
“Bed.”
Instructor:
“What do we sleep in?”
STUDENT:
“Bed.”
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Incorrect Responding
If the child gives an incorrect answer…
1. repeat the question and immediately say the answer
(prompt with a 0 second delay)
2. wait for the child to imitate you
3. ask the question again to get an unprompted response
Instructor:
“What’s this?”
STUDENT:
“woof, woof”
Instructor:
“What’s this? Dog.”
STUDENT:
“Dog.”
Instructor:
“What’s this?”
STUDENT:
“Dog.”
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Prompt Fading
• It is vital to fade prompts so that the student does not
become dependent on prompting and so the response comes
under control of the stimulus and the target verbal SD.
• This is accomplished by asking the question again in
attempts to get an unprompted response.
Instructor:
STUDENT:
Instructor:
STUDENT:
“What’s this? Cat.”
“Cat.”
“What’s this?”
“Cat.”
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Massed Trials vs. Mixed Trials
• It is not always possible to get an unprompted
response right away
• Be careful and avoid frustrating the child if this is
the case.
• Children vary in their ability to tolerate multiple
trials (massed trials) but as a general rule, if you are
still unable to get an unprompted response after the
third attempt, accept the prompted response and
move on.
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Behavioral Momentum and
Mixed Trials
• Separate prompted from unprompted responses
with “easy” tasks (those you know the child will
respond to correctly)
• Then go back to the missed item.
• Increase the number of “easy tasks” gradually while
still going back for an unprompted response.
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Example
Instructor:
STUDENT:
Instructor:
STUDENT:
Instructor:
STUDENT:
Instructor:
STUDENT:
Instructor:
“Swim little
“
“fish”
“What’s this?”
“fish”
“Touch the fish!”
<touches fish>
“What’s this?” (holding up fish)
“fish”
“Great job!”
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Errorless Learning and
Behavioral Momentum
• We want to prompt new skills and thereby avoid incorrect
responses
 we do not want the child practicing the wrong response.
• Immediately repeat the drill when the student responds
incorrectly in order to keep the child from inadvertently
learning to chain incorrect and correct responses.
• Mixing difficult targets with easy (mastered) responses
increases the amount of reinforcement.
• Make sure you are using differential reinforcement when
using behavioral momentum (make sure to use a stronger
reinforcer for new targets than for mastered skills.
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New Targets/Acquisition Skills
1. Start teaching session with several maintenance items first
(to build success and behavioral momentum).
2. Fully prompt the acquisition item.
3. Immediately provide a second learning opportunity
(correction trial) for independent responding.
4. Provide several maintenance items.
5. Ask for the acquisition response again. (we are trying to
reduce the level of prompts).
6. If response is independent (no prompt required), reinforce
immediately! If student does not respond independently,
give a full prompt.
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7. If a full prompt is required, use correction trial
procedures.
8. Provide several maintenance items.
9. Ask acquisition item with faded prompt.
10. Ask for an independent response (if the response
is independent or with a reduced prompt,
reinforce immediately. If the same level of
prompting is required, but the student is still
activity attending, reinforce effort).
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Maintenance Skills
1.
2.
3.
If student misses maintenance items, give full prompt.
Ask for an independent response.
After getting independent response, you do not need to
stop immediately to reinforce the maintenance item.
Provide social reinforcement (“that’s right”) and proceed
with the teaching session.
In maintenance trials present SD only once, then wait three
seconds for the student to respond independently.
If the student does not respond (or responds incorrectly), use
least-to-most prompting. Then, present one correction trial
using the same strategies.
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Teaching Guidelines
1. Provide SD (Discriminative Stimulus) only once, then
prompt. Avoid making repeated demands.
2. Intersperse skills (mix receptive, motor imitation,
expressive, etc). Do not do all trials of a program at once.
3. New Skills: present the SD and immediately follow with a
prompt (errorless learning). Follow the prompted
response with social reinforcement and a second learning
opportunity for the skill (correction trial)
• fade prompt to a one second delay (give him a chance
to respond independently)
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Teaching Guidelines
4. Once the student begins responding within the onesecond delay, fade to two, then a three-second delay. If
no response occurs within three seconds, always
prompt the response.
5. Fade the type of prompt in addition to the timing of the
prompt.
6. Each teaching session should begin with requesting
(manding) to establish the therapist as a conditioned
reinforcer and to determine the child’s interest and
motivation (which ensure consistent and optimal
responding).
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Teaching Guidelines
7. Once you ask for the reinforcer back, present the next
task immediately (within one second). Do not make the
student wait without access to a reinforcer.
8. Occasionally, ask for the reinforcer back but provide
the student with the opportunity to immediately access
it again by requesting (manding).
9. Reinforcers should be delivered after approximately 35 responses in the beginning. These numbers can be
increased over time.
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Teaching Guidelines
10. Keep your pace up. You want short time between your
instructions. This helps to create fluent responding
(accurate and quick) and behavioral momentum.
11. Remember to add in maintenance items to ensure
good, fast responding (behavioral momentum).
12. When working on maintenance items, make sure you
use time delay (2-3 seconds before prompting). The
goal is to have independent responding.
Use Errorless Learning
(it is our job to make learning fun)
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Behavioral Terms
• Shaping- A process through which we gradually
modify the child’s existing behavior into what we
want it to be. This is typically done by adjusting the
requirements before reinforcement is given. For
example, if a child is just learning to say words, he
may just be asked to touch and item before
receiving it. Later, we may require the beginning
sound, a syllable and eventually the word.
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