Pre-writing: Audience,
Topic to Question,Outlining
Preliminaries
Determine who your readers are.
Compose questions to address a gap in knowledge.
Draft “claims” that answer knowledge-gap questions.
Ask “why” and “how” questions; identify a “puzzle”
or “paradox”: Topic > Puzzle > Question
Find supporting reasons and evidence for claims.
Address alternative views.
Determine the warrants necessary to move from
reasons to claim.
Outlining:
A Recursive Process
Begin outlining during research and reading.
Draft a “topic” outline.
Merely a list of subjects to cover–phrases, not sentences
Draft a “point”/“reason” outline.
Relate together the main points to cover in each section.
Save each outline draft in a separate file!
Sample “Topic” Outline
(p. 175 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.)
Introduction: Laptops in Classrooms
Uses
Labs
Classroom
Studies of laptops in classroom
“Laptops are good” studies
“Laptops are bad” studies
Conclusions
“Point” (Reason) Outline
(p. 176 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.)
I.
II.
Introduction: Value of classroom computers uncertain.
Different uses have different effects.
A. All uses increase flexibility.
B. Networked computers allow student interaction.
C. Classroom instruction does not enhance learning.
D. In-class laptops often a distraction.
III. Studies show that the effect on writing quality is limited.
A. Writers are more wordy.
B. Writers need hard copy to revise.
IV. Conclusion: Too soon to tell how much laptops improve
learning.
A. Too few reliable empirical studies.
B. Too little history, too many programs in transition
C. Some schools adding programs; some dropping
programs.
“Topic” Outline
Broad to Narrow
Community participation related to tobacco laws
Two laws established B.E. 2535
Nonsmokers Health Protection Act
Prevention of smoking in public spaces
Tobacco Products Control Act
Prevention of sale to minors
Community implementation or compliance with
the laws
Awareness of the laws and the consequences
of smoking
Compliance with the law and smoking
behavior
Why is this interesting?
What’s the “puzzle,” “paradox,” or
“problem?
Two laws passed 22 years ago but have been
ineffective in (rural) communities
Evidence that merchants still sell to minors
(previous research)
Evidence that people still smoke in public spaces
(Previous research)
Topic to Question
Take the most interesting (narrowed) topic and turn it
into a “how” or “why” question.
Q1: Why do people still disobey the tobacco laws,
even after 20 years?
Q2: How might people’s participation in a
public campaign enhance their compliance
with the laws?
Q3: How might a locally based participatory
intervention enhance people’s compliance?
Again:Outlining is
a Recursive Process
Revise your outline after your first draft and continuously.
Transpose your “free form point/reason outline into a
required standard format.
Introduction
Background
Methods & Materials (Data & Methodology)
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Avoid “Writer-Based” Prose
(pp. 177-78 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.)
Do not organize your report as a narrative
of your thinking.
Do not organize your report as a patchwork
of your sources
Write “Reader-Based” Prose
(pp. 179-86 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.)
Organize according to basic reader needs.
Definitions
Conditions, Background, History, etc.
Warrants
Data description
For ease of understanding and processing information
Chronological order: old to new
Content: simple to complex
Write “Reader-Based” Prose
(pp. 179-86 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.)
Organize strategically.
Move from uncontested to contested claims.
Establish common ground (warrants) first.
Warrants – Evidence/Grounds – Claim
Acknowledge opposite points of view.