Readings: Ware CH 2 and D/W CH 5
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What are supporters? Members? Activists?
What role do they play in the functioning of
political parties?
How do political parties convince voters to
join?
Are members as important to parties today
as they were a few decades ago?
Is the oft-cited decline in party membership
a danger for political parties?
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Supporters: individuals which support a party
but rarely do more than vote.
◦ Rarely require policy influence in return.
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Members: supporters who provide income for
the party via membership dues.
◦ Although many do little other than pay their
dues.
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Activists: voters whose support extends
beyond paying dues.
◦ Provides volunteer labor for the party.
◦ Often expect policy influence in return.
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Supporters, members, and activists provide valuable
resources for political parties.
But parties vary on how much emphasis they place on
each.
◦ Cadre parties prefer supporters rather than members.
◦ Mass parties emphasized a large membership.
 Great for creating networks to spread ideology.
◦ Catch-all parties attempt to draw voters from
“outside” their base
 Emphasis placed on pulling in supporters during
election time.
 No real need for a membership base.
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Political activists can provide a strong
workforce base for parties regardless of
party type.
◦ But activists typically want policy
commitments in exchange for their labor.
◦ And what activists want and what
supporters want can be different.
 Ideological zeal can hurt catch all
strategies.
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Parties may depend on assistance from the
voting public, but relationships between
parties and voters have changed.
◦ Party membership is declining in most
advanced democracies.
◦ Rising levels of electoral volatility (change
in support for a given party in between
elections) suggests that parties are
drawing on a declining support base.
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Why not just farm out party functions to paid
professionals?
Members, supporters and activists:
◦ 1) Provide support for a given program or ideology.
◦ 2) Volunteers provide more effective assistance than
hired labor.
 Increased commitment useful for parties.
◦ 3) Campaign finance laws typically prohibit using
funds for certain activities.
 Volunteers can perform these functions.
◦ 4) Party leaders rely on a support base to counter the
effects of other organized interests within the party.
◦ 5) Members and activists generate party resources.
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Fiorina 1999
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Intrinsic model of participation:
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◦ Not easily.
◦ Political participation is costly.
◦ E(P) = p(B) – c
◦ You participate if the benefits outweigh the costs.
Given the low likelihood your individual
action will be decisive, costs outweigh
benefits.
Parties try to overcome this collective action
problem by providing incentives.
◦ Two types: selective and purposive.
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Selective incentives: attempt to boost the
benefits of participation relative to the costs.
◦ Two types: material and solidary
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Material incentives: monetary or other
material inducements in exchange for
political support.
◦ Most forms are no longer available or are of
questionable legality in advanced systems.
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Solidary incentives: collective benefits
accrued by belonging to a group or
organization.
◦ Useful for mass parties.
◦ Changing societal factors have reduced the
appeal of solidary incentives
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Purposive incentives tap into expressive functions
of voters.
◦ Offer opportunities to assist the party in
spreading policy/ideology.
Fiorina 1999
◦ Expressive model of participation:
 E(P) = p(B) – c + e
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Activists seeking purposive rewards expect parties
to deliver on their issues.
◦ Strains catch all appeals.
Single issues rather than encompassing ideology
draw activists in modern parties.
◦ Support depends on issue salience.
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Kirchheimer 1966
◦ Catch all parties fail to
integrate new groups/voters
into society.
Ware 1996
◦ May provide opportunities
for extreme voices to hijack
parties.
Dalton et al. 1999
◦ Decline in voter
participation may weaken
attachments to elections.
 Citizens may view
protests, petitions,
demonstrations, etc. as
more effective.
PROBLEMATIC
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Epstein 1967
Allows parties to jettison
more ideological
components.
Scarrow 2000
Admits that membership
numbers are declining
◦ But is not convinced that
this decline is necessarily
problematic for parties or
democracy.
Decline may be due to other
unrelated factors.
NOT PROBLEMATIC
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Scarrow 2000
Identifies three “myths” about declining
membership and party organizational
strength.
Argues that:
◦ 1) The “Golden Era” (mid century) of mass parties
was unique.
 Should not be held up as the baseline for comparison.
◦ 2) Membership decline is not synonymous with
weaker organizational strength.
◦ 3) Political parties still find members useful.
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Bottom line: parties rely on a smaller, but
more active membership.
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As party organizations have evolved, their reliance on
supporters, members, and activists have changed.
◦ Voters are increasingly reluctant to become active in party organizations.
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Relying on material incentives to boost support is no longer
an option in most advanced democracies.
◦ Selective incentives are declining in utility.
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The most useful type of incentives (purposive) can often
create problems for parties.
◦ Example: UK Labour 1979-1997, UK Conservatives 19972010
Some posit that declining party membership is dangerous.
◦ While others argue that parties are adapting to new
social/political challenges.
 Theme:
Party Organization-Cartel
Parties
◦ Readings:
 Ware CH 3
 Dalton and Wattenberg CH 6
 Reserves: Katz and Mair