Minnesota Handwriting Assessment
Jeffrey Arnold & Morgan Vaughan
Key Characteristics
 Purpose
 To quantify selected aspects of young student’s
handwriting
 Used to support or reject teachers subjective
judgment of poor quality or slow rate
handwriting in students
 Age
 Second semester 1st graders and 2nd graders
Frame of Reference most likely
used guiding selection of this tool
 Biomechanical
 Developmental
 PEO
Bottom-Up Approach
Test Development and
Standardization
 Test development
 Literature reviews
 Consultation with teachers
 Standardization sample
 n = 2,000
 11 different states
 Second semester 1st graders and 2nd graders
Domains
 Rate – how fast the child writes
 Legibility – how readable is a letter?
 Form – does the letter make the shape it is
supposed to with all lines connect, and all straight
lines straight, and curved lines curved.
 Alignment – does the letter rest within 1/16
above or below the base line?
 Size – how big or small the letters are?
 Spacing – how far apart or close together are the
letters?
Psychometric Properties
(Reliability)
 Interrater
 Pearson Correlation
(.77-.88)
 Intrarater
 Fisher’s Z
 Rate – 1.00
 Legibility - .96
 Form and spacing
- .97
 Alignment and
Size - .99
 Test-retest
 Rate – 71%
 Legibility 64%
 Form – 75%
 Alignment - 86%
 Size – 82%
 Spacing – 76%
Psychometric Properties – Validity
 Content
 Based on literature reviews and consultation with
primary grade teachers
 Construct
 Manual does not explain but the explanation for
content validity explains the construct as well
 Criterion
 Concurrent – measured using the Test of Visual Motor
Skills
 Strong association between first graders and
students in special education with no OT, and for
students receiving OT.
Measurement concerns
 Scores are subjective because they are based on
the facilitator’s judgment of the handwriting.
 Only inclusion criteria:
 Child must be in 1st or 2nd grade
 No exclusion criteria
Test Length
 10-15 minutes for total administration and
scoring.
 2.5 minutes to determine Rate
 Child can finish sentence for legibility score.
Test Cost
 Starter kit - $87.00
 Manual
 1 D’Nealian pad
 1 Manuscript pad
 Each pad has 25 sheets
 Clear 6 inch ruler
 Print pads $25 –
 package of 4 pads of 25 sheets for each D’Nealian
and Manuscript print pads
Testing Procedures
 Have student seated at a desk or table of appropriate
height for their size
 Lighting and ventilations should be appropriate and
comfortable
 Choose appropriate stimulus sheet (D’Nealian or
Manuscript) depending on handwriting style practiced in
the classroom.
 Time the test for 2 ½ minutes to establish rate score.
 If the student did not finish the sentence give
additional time to finish the words to score the 5
quality categories
Test Items
Scoring
Scoring Interpretation
 Like Peers Level is equivalent to scoring in the top
75% of the range of students.
 Somewhat Below Peers Level is equivalent to the
bottom 5%-25% of the range of students.
 These students should be monitored to determine the
underlying problem.
 Well Below Peers Level is equivalent to the bottom
5% of the range of students.
 These students should be sent for an evaluation to
determine the underlying problem.
Test results
Area(s) of occupation addressed
 Education
 MHA is best administered in a school setting.
Reference
Asher, I.E. (Ed.). (2014). Asher’s Occupational
Therapy Assessment Tools (4th ed.).
Bethesda,MD: AOTA Press.
Reisman, J. (1999). Minnesota Handwriting
Assessment. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.