Composition II
GE217
Instructor: Melissa Barry
Chapter one
Understand Persuasion:Thinking Like a
Negotiator
What is an
argument?
• Persuasion means influencing someone to do
something
• An argument is when you express ideas, you are
attempting to persuade someone to agree with you.
Facts are not
arguable
• Facts are readily verifiable, they can’t be argued. Of
course, people might dispute a fact.
• Example:
• The distance between Boston and New York is 214
miles
• Martin Luther King Jr’s birthday is now celebrated in
all 50 states
• I got a 91 on my math test
continued
• The Washington Monument is 555 feet high.
• The Japanese smoke more cigarettes per capita than
any other people on earth.
• My dog Fred died a year ago
• George W. Bush was elected as the 43rd president of
the United States
Opinion based on personal
taste and preference
• Different opinions are the basis of all arguments;
however, you have to be careful to distinguish between
opinions based on personal taste
• The word opinion is commonly used to mean different
things. Opinions can refer to personal preferences, a
reaction, analysis of something or an evaluation.
• George looks good in blue
• Pizza is my favorite food
• Video games are a waste of time
Even if you have
strong feelings
• Even if you have strong emotional feelings tied to a
subject it is not worth a debate based on your personal
feelings…… for example lets say you make the
statement that you never eat red meat
1.) you are disgusted by by the sight of meat
2.) When meat is cooked; the smells disgusts you
3.) Hamburgers remind you of a fight that broke out at a
local McDonalds
4.) You once got sick from red meat
Opinions/judgment
• A opinion of a judgment is one that
weighs pros and cons of an issue and
determines the relative worth
PROS
CONS
The uses of
argument
• A debate is an encounter between two or more
adversaries who battle with each other who
over who is right.
• An argument is a form of persuasion that seeks
to convince others to do what the arguer wants.
Debate
• Debate is how we traditionally think of argument
• Debates are traditionally won or lost, and losers often
feel frustrated and disappointed. Even more important,
reasonable concerns on the losing side are often
overlooked and not addressed.
• Debate does not provide a mechanics for compromise.
It is not intended to provides a path toward common
ground or a resolution in which all parties achieve a
degree of success and positive change is made.
Formulating claims
• The claim is the heart of your argument
• Sometimes writers signal their claims to their readers by
certain words: therefore, consequently, the real question is, the
point is, it follows that…….
• Formulating your claim when you debate is the first step for
thee reasons…
1.) It establishes the subject
2.) It solidifies your own stand or position about the issue
3.) It sets up a strategy on which your argument can be
constructed.
Creating Reasons
• Reasons are the support beams of an argument essay
• Reason answer some basic question bout your claim
Why do you believe your claim to be true?
On what information or assumptions do you have to base your
claim?
Do any authorities or experts concur with your claim?
Credibility is an essential element in creating reasons….
The opposition
• Your goal as a successful debater is based on being
prepared for the opposition or opposite view point
• If you are unaware of opposing reasons, you leave
yourself open to being undermined and not prepared.
Exchanges
• One way to be aware of the reasons on the other side is
to study and research your topic carefully. Engage by
using “yes, but” exchange and imagine you are face to
face with someone holding a different position.
• I do agree but…
• In exchange to that….
• Yes, but I see it this way…..
Dialogue
• Dialogue is discussion, listening, interaction, and
understanding…..
• The object of a dialogue is not to win or lose; the
object is to communicate….
• This allows for modification in the discussions and
requires both sides to do more than argue but to
present viewpoints and respond to the opposition
questions.
Deliberation
• Plays an important part in the process of developing
arguments and deliberation means to carefully and fully
consider our reasons for and against something before
making up our minds.
• 1.) Becoming informed about the issue by reading and
researching the information available
• 2.) Creating a dialogue by listening to the arguments of all
sides in the debate and trying to understand the reasons
behind their claims
• 3.) Carefully weighing all the arguments and information
• 4.) Determine your own position on the issue.
What is rhetoric
One person addressing an audience (one or many)
The art of observing any given case always in a
persuasive method
Found in conversations, movies, advertisements,
books, magazines and art
“the faculty of discovering in any particular
caseall of the available means of persuasion.”
Why is rhetoric
important
Because it allows a person to transform their
ability to speak, read and write making their
speech or piece of work more successful and
meaningful....
What are appeals?
Appeals- Finding common appeals to the
audience...(money, love, self-worth, success)
Appeals are used to even narrow down a specific
audience
For example: If I were to write a voting campaign
for a younger audience, I will have young stars and
musicians star in my public service announcement
Ethos, Logos, Pathos
Ethos
“think ethical”
An attitude held by the receiver (the audience) toward
the speaker (the source). We commonly refer to this as
source credibility, the prestige of the speaker, and
personal proof. Ethos can be initial (the beginning of the
message), it can be derived (produced during the
message) and it can be terminal (source credibility at the
close of the message.
Ethos is in the mind of the receiver; the receiver has it;
we as an audience determine if the communicator is
credible. The ethos of a source may vary greatly;
especially if he/she is controversial.
“Ask not what your
country can do
for you...ask what
you can do for
your country”
Logos
“think logic”
Logos appeal is a more logical approach that uses
factual data, stats, quotes, citations and informed
opinions. It also uses literal and historic analogies
and clear definitions.
A logical argument would look like this- We
should increase the use of nuclear energy in the
US to save money and create alternative energy.
Pathos
“think patriotism”
Pathos appeal refers to the emotion behind an
argument. Pathos arguments tend to be very
emotionally loaded with connotative meanings.
There are vivid expressions and a strong emotional
tone.
An example of a pathos argument would be- The
US should invade Iraq after the hundreds of
people who lost their lives on 9/11
What is a fallacy?
A fallacy is deceptive
or misleading (a false
notion)
Example: The world
is flat....(false belief)
What is logical
fallacy
An error in reasoning, or a flaw in the structure of
an argument...here are two ways to create a logical
fallacy....
What is an ad
hominem?
An argument against “the
man”
When you attack the character
of personality of the speaker
instead of attacking the
substance of their position
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=ebT1Oo6yDMI
Post hoc, Ergo
Propter Hoc
After this, therefore because of this….
Establishes a questionable cause and effect relationship
between events
Because event Y follow event X, event X must have
cause event Y.
Whenever I drive to Chicago, I get a flat tire….I saw
John at the courthouse, he must have been arrested
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HL_vHDjG5Wk&
feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vRJUvFG8gbE
Hasty
Generalization
The error of drawing a general conclusion based upon
unreliable examples....
Example: This book was written by a Harvard professor
so it must be good!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cIyhbIZXdtI
False dilemma
When someone is asked to choose between two
options when there is at least one other option
available
Complex questions are subtle forms of false
dilemma. Questions such as “Are you going to
admit that you’re wrong?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dln3DJEcghY
Ad misericordiam
• Appeal to pity
• When an argument is based solely on the exploitation
of the reader’s pity, the issue gets lost.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s0Sce4-UHjg
Ad populum
• “ To the people”
• Arguments aimed to the supposed prejudices and
emotions of the masses.
• Doctors oppose healthcare reform because it reduces
their large incomes….
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vmxzb8MQtxc
Bandwagon appeal
• Makes the claim that if everyone is doing it, then you
should do it too
• The basic appeal to the argument is feeling like we
belong as a group acting as a majority
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YhMaUiufjcU
Circular reasoning
• The conclusion of the argument is hidden in the
premise of that argument thus the argument goes in a
circle.
• Steroids are dangerous because they ruin your
health….steroids are dangerous because they are
dangerous….
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8CVbku6nxhU
False analogy
• When two things compared do not match up feature
for feature.
• The ideas compared do not logically connect.
• Letting emerging nations have nuclear weapons is like
giving loaded guns to children.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S8LydU2P7Yw
Red herring
• To distract the audience from the true issues of an
argument.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=exdK7Lirngg
Slippery slope
• Presumes that one event will lead to a chain of events
that will lead to a catastrophe….
• So A lead to B leads to C leads to D leads to Z
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=czG5U0v3gU&feature=results_main&playnext=1&list
=PL0A6527B2A27F4B9E
Practice
• A book is pornographic if and only if it contains
pornography
• ANSWER: Circular Reasoning
• Jeff's mom is concerned when she finds out that he
skipped class one day. She tells him that she is
concerned that since he skipped one class, he will start
skipping more frequently. Then he will drop out
altogether, never graduate or get into college, and end
up unemployed and living at home for the rest of his
life. What type of fallacy has Jeff's mom committed?
• ANSWER Slippery Slope
• Louise is running for class president. In her campaign
speech she says, "My opponent does not deserve to
win. She is a smoker and she cheated on her boyfriend
last year."
• Answer Ad Hominem
• Anthony and Marie have a heated argument. During
their fight, Anthony tells Marie that he hates her and
wished that she would get hit by a bus. Later that
evening, Anthony receives a call from a friend who
tells him that Maria is in the hospital because she was
struck by a bus. Anthony immediately blames himself
and reasons that if he hadn't made that comment
during their fight, Marie would not have been hit.
What logical fallacy has Anthony committed?
• Answer: Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
• Consider the following conversation:
Bill: I think capital punishment is wrong.
Adam: No it isn't…what’s wrong is the fact probation
officers are being let go on a daily basis
• Answer: Red Herring
• Dana is trying to raise money for her university's
library. In her address to the board of trustees, she
says, "We must raise tuition to cover the cost of new
books. Otherwise the library will be forced to close."
• Answer: False Dilemma
• Jeff is preparing to create a commercial for a new
energy drink. He visits a local high school and surveys
students in an English class about their beverage
preferences. The majority of the class says they prefer
grape flavored drinks, so Jeff tells his superiors that
grape is the flavor favored most by high school
students.
• Ad Populum
• Satanist Quarterly reports that 87% of Americans are
atheists. Therefore, there is no god.
• Answer: Hasty generalization
• You should totally come to SDA because its such an
artistic school. Way more people go to SDA than LCC.
All of our middle school is going to SDA so you
should go too.
• Answer Bandwagon
• Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the
head in order to make them work, so must employees.
• Answer: False Analogy
• Fred, the Australian, stole my wallet. Thus, all
Australians are thieves.
• Answer: Hasty Generalization
• Vegans tend to be healthier than non Vegans. How
could you not support Vegans? Do you know how the
kill animals in slaughter houses. You should feel bad
for those poor animals.
• Answer: Ad Misericordiam
• Immigration to Alberta from Ontario increased. Soon
after, the welfare rolls increased. Therefore, the
increased immigration caused the increased welfare
rolls.
• Answer: Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc
• An animal is human if and only if it has human
parents.
• Answer: Circular Reasoning
• Everyone knows that the Earth is flat, so why do you
persist in your outlandish claims?
• Answer: Ad Populum