Reading & Evaluating Arguments




Be prepared to take Cornell Notes on your
own sheet of paper.
Each table also needs a TEAM ANSWER
SHEET for group discussion questions.
Be prepared to discuss answers to group
discussion questions with the class.
Notes and answers will be submitted for
review at the end of the hour.
Reading & Evaluating Arguments

An ARGUMENT presents logical reasons and
evidence to support a viewpoint or claim
 ISSUE - problem or controversy about
which people disagree
 CLAIM - the position on the issue
 SUPPORT – explanation as to why the
claim is reasonable and acceptable
 REFUTATION - opposing viewpoints or
counterarguments
Types of Support



REASON – a general statement that supports
a claim.
EVIDENCE – facts, statistics, experiences,
comparisons, and examples that show why
the claim is valid.
EMOTIONAL APPEALS – ideas that are
targeted toward needs or values that readers
are likely to care about.
GROUP DISCUSSION: Malcolm
Gladwell’s Argument





What is the ISSUE(s) discussed in Chapter 1
OR Chapter 2 of The Outliers?
What CLAIM(s) does Gladwell make?
What reasons, evidence, and/or appeal does
Gladwell provide to SUPPORT his claim(s)?
What REFUTATION(s) does Gladwell make?
Is Gladwell’s ARGUMENT convincing? Why
or why not?
GROUP DISCUSSION: Malcolm
Gladwell’s Argument





What is the ISSUE(s) discussed in Chapter 2
of The Outliers?
What is Gladwell’s CLAIM(s)?
What logical reasons and evidence does
Gladwell provide to SUPPORT his claim?
What REFUTATION(s) does Gladwell make?
Is Gladwell’s ARGUMENT convincing? Why
or why not?
Types of Claims



Claim of FACT – statement that can be
proven or verified by observation or research
Example: Within ten years, destruction of rain
forests will cause hundreds of plant and
animal species to become extinct.
GROUP DISCUSSION: What claims of fact
does Gladwell make in Chapters 1 & 2?
Types of Claims



Claim of VALUE – states that one thing or
idea is better or more desirable than another.
Example: Requiring community service in
high school will produce more communityaware graduates.
GROUP DISCUSSION: What claims of value
does Gladwell make in Chapters 1 & 2?
Types of Claims



Claim of POLICY – suggests what should or
ought to be done to solve a problem.
To reduce school violence, more gun and
metal detectors should be installed in public
schools.
GROUP DISCUSSION: What claims of policy
does Gladwell make in Chapters 1 & 2?
Inductive and Deductive Arguments



INDUCTIVE - reaches a general conclusion
from observed specifics (specific  general).
By observing the performance of a large
number of athletes, you could conclude that
athletes possess physical stamina.
GROUP DISCUSSION: What inductive
reasoning does Gladwell use in Chapter 1?
Chapter 2?
Inductive and Deductive Arguments



DEDUCTIVE - begins with a major premise
and moves toward a more specific statement
or minor premise (general  specific).
Athletes possess physical stamina. Because
Anthony is an athlete, he must possess
physical stamina.
GROUP DISCUSSION: What deductive
reasoning does Gladwell use in Chapter 1?
Chapter 2?
Chapters 3, 4, & 5 Annotation Focus





Claims of FACT
Claims of VALUE
Claims of POLICY
INDUCTIVE Reasoning
DEDUCTIVE Reasoning
Must identify
AND discuss
in 1-2
sentences in
margin or no
credit!
Chapters 3, 4, & 5 Annotation Focus



Evidence – Identify types of evidence in
Chapters 3 & 4 and note whether or not it is
sufficient to support the claim and why.
Personal Experience – Identify and explain
how it reveals Gladwell’s bias.
Examples – Identify and note whether or not
they are used alone or in conjunction with
other examples. Explain how using examples
in conjunction strengthens the argument.
Chapters 3, 4, & 5 Annotation Focus



Statistics – Identify and note whether they are
misused, manipulated, or misinterpreted and
explain how so.
Comparisons and Analogies – Identify and
discuss how reliable they are (i.e., how
closely they correspond to the situation).
Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence –
Note in the margin whether or not the kind of
evidence used is relevant and/or sufficient.
Chapters 3, 4, & 5 Annotation Focus



Definition of Terms – Identify new,
technical, or special terms and note
whether or not Gladwell sufficiently
defines and/or explains them.
Cause-Effect Relationships – Identify and
discuss effects on the intended audience.
Implied or Stated Value System – Note
when Gladwell’s values seem to be
consistent (or inconsistent) with yours.
Chapters 3, 4, & 5 Annotation Focus

Recognizing and Refuting Opposing
Viewpoints



Feel free to question the accuracy, relevancy,
or sufficiency of Gladwell’s evidence. Note
questions/challenges in the margins.
Note whether or not Gladwell addresses
opposing viewpoints clearly and fairly.
Note whether or not Gladwell refutes
opposing viewpoints with logic and relevant
evidence.
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

Unfair Emotional Appeals


Emotionally Charged or Biased Language
False Authority
athletes endorsing underwear
 movie stars selling shampoo


Association
a car being named a Cougar to remind you of a
sleek animal
 a cigarette advertisement featuring a scenic
waterfall

Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

Unfair Emotional Appeals

Appeal to “Common Folk”
an ad showing a product being used in an average
household
 a politician suggesting he is like everyone else



Ad Hominem - attack on the person rather
than his/her viewpoint
“Join the Crowd” Appeal or Bandwagon
What emotional appeal is being used?

Come early so you won’t have to stand in line –
because everyone knows you can make a deal
with Dave and save.

As a test pilot, Susan Gibbs knows performance.
“That’s why I drive a Mustang,” she says.

Olson’s pizzas are lower in fat and calories.
Other pizza makers don’t care about your health.
Emotional appeals continued…

“We can work magic with your children,” says
Eileen of Eileen’s Day Care. “Call upon us, and
your children will be happy you did.”

Liberty Bell Airlines flies anywhere in this great
land, from sea to shining sea.

As a young man, Candidate Alan Wilson learned
what it means to work hard by spending long
hours lifting boxes and sweeping floors working in
a department store.
Errors in Logical Reasoning
commonly called logical fallacies
invalidate the argument or render argument flawed

Circular Reasoning/Begging the Question


“Female police officers should not be sent to
crime scenes because apprehending
criminals is a man’s job.”
Hasty Generalization - conclusion derived
from insufficient evidence

“Because one apple is sour,
all of them in the bowl must
be sour.”
Errors in Logical Reasoning

Non Sequitur (“It Does Not Follow”)


False Cause


“Because my doctor is young, I’m
sure she’ll be a good doctor.”
“Because I opened the umbrella when I
tripped on the sidewalk, the umbrella must
have caused me to trip.”
Either-Or Fallacy

“Because of the violence, TV must be either
allowed or banned.”
For Each Argument:






Identify the claim.
Outline the reasons to support the claim.
What types of evidence are used?
Evaluate the adequacy and sufficiency of
the evidence.
What emotional appeals are used?
Does the author recognize or refute
counter arguments?
Comparing the Arguments:



Compare the types of evidence used.
Which argument did you find more
convincing? Why?
What further information would be useful
in assessing the issue?
Read the articles on education and
complete the activities following each
selection.
“School Boards Doing Little to
Close Gap Between Whites,
Minorities”
“School Vouchers: The Wrong
Choice for Public Education”