Long-Term Memory
• Introduction
– STM versus LTM
– Episodic Memory
– Semantic Memory
– Procedural Memory
• Encoding in Long-Term Memory
– Depth of Processing (or Levels of Processing)
– Self Reference Effect
– Encoding Specificity Principle
– Emotions, Moods, and Memory
1

Long-Term Memory 2
• Retrieval in Long-Term Memory
– Explicit versus Implicit Memory
– Very Long-Term Memory
– Expertise
– Amnesia
• Autobiographical Memory
– Flashbulb Memories
– Schemas & Autobiographical Memory
– Source Monitoring
– Eyewitness Testimony
2

Tulving’s Memory Model
• Episodic
• Semantic
• Procedural
3

Encoding in LTM
• Levels (depth) of processing
• Self-Reference Effect
• Encoding Specificity Principle
• Emotion and Memory
– Mood and Memory
4

Levels of Processing Framework
• Craik & Lockhart (1972)
• Type of Processing
– Physical Processing > shallow
– Meaningful Processing > deep
• Trace byproduct of processing
• Deeper processing leads to more durable traces
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Levels of Processing Demonstration
6

7

Maintenance Rehearsal vs.
Elaborative Rehearsal
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Research on LOP and Similar Themes
• Tulving (1975)
• Generation Effect (1978)
– e.g. light d_ _ k (generation) vs.
light dark (read)
• Faces - e.g. Sporer (1991)
9

Judge how wide the person’s nose is:
1 2 3 4 5 very thin average very wide
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Nose
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12

Judge how honest this face is
Judge how honest this face is:
1 2 3 4 5 very dishonest very hone st
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Explanations
• Distinctiveness
• Elaboration
14

Self-Reference Effect
• Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1997)
• Process list of words:
– Physical characteristics
– Acoustic characteristics
– Semantic characteristics
– Self - (reference)
• Robust effect
• Symons & Johnson (1997)
– Meta-analysis
• Explanations
15

Rogers, et. al., 1977
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Revisions to LOP
• Moscovitch & Craik (1975)
-Encoding Specificity Principle
• Bransford & Franks
- Transfer Appropriate Processing
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Effects of Context
• Geiselman & Glenny (1977)
• Outshining hypothesis
H
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Effects of Context
• Baddeley - scuba diving
• Remembering names - faces as contextual cues
• Practical Application - imaginary reinstatement
19

Geiselman & Glenny (1997)
Encoding
(Imagined) female voice male voice
Test (Actual
Speaker) male female male female
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How can we use the
Encoding Specificity Principle to improve memory for events?
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Mood & Memory
• Memory for items differing in emotion
• Pollyanna Principle
• Mood Congruence
- individual differences studies
- experimental manipulation of moods
• Mood-State Dependence
- Claudia Ucros (1989)
- meta-analysis
- other variables
23

Study each of the words that appear
Picture
Commerce
Motion
Village
Vessel
Window
Number
Reindeer
Custom
Fellow
Advice
Dozen
Flower
Kitchen
Bookstore
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Explicit Memory Measures
25

Implicit Memory Measures
Picture, Commerce, Motion, Village,Vessel,Window,
Number, Reindeer, Custom, Fellow, Advice, Dozen,
Flower, Kitchen, Bookstore
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Explicit vs Implicit Measures of Memory
• Explicit memory measures:
– recall
– recognition
• Implicit memory measures:
– Word fragment completion
– Stem completion
– Repetition priming
• Role of conscious, deliberate recollection
27

The Critical Distinction
• Explicit memory tasks require conscious, deliberate recollection of previous experiences
• Implicit memory tasks do not require conscious recollection of previous events e.g., b_ _ k
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Research with Amnesics
• Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)
• Tasks explicit - recognition, recall implicit - mutilated word guessing
- stem completion e.g. st_ _ _
• Replicated
• Dissociation
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Dissociation
• A variable has an effect on one type of test, but little or no effect on another type of test
• A variable has one type of effect if measured by Test A, but a different effect if measured by
Test B
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Research with Normal Adults
• Levels of processing and the implicit / explicit distincion
• Picture Superiority Effect
• Current Status
- explanations
- applications
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Levels of Processing: Explicit/Implict Tests truck
Explicit
Memory Test
Semantic
(pleasant vs unpleasant)
Physical, perceptual
Task (# syllables or
Upper/lower case?)
Higher recall, recognition *
___
Implicit
Memory Test
(e.g. t_u_k)
___ Higher--or at least equal performance *
32

Picture Superiority Effect versus.
Elephant
1. Subjects view a series of pictures or a series of words
2. Subjects recall stimuli by writing down names of items -- recall of pictures is higher than recall of words.
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Weldon & Roediger (1987)
Picture Superiority Effect
Encoding
‘FROG’ vs.
H
Recall Test Recall
Compare Implicit vs. Explicit Measures
Encoding vs.
‘FROG’
Test
Recall word fragment completion f r _ g
Recall word fragment completion f r _ g
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Weldon & Roediger Graph (1987)
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Explanations
• No agreed-upon explanation
• Context & encoding specificity
• Multiple memory systems
– e.g. Tulving
• Neuroscience account
36

Applications of implicit / explicit memory research to real life problems?
37

Ad for Experimental Psychologists
38

Expertise
• Influence on LTM
• Definition - consistent superior performance
- deliberate practice
- at least 10 years
• Domain specific
• 10-year rule
39

Context-Specific Nature of Expertise
• Skilled memory effect
• Chess
-De Groot
-Chase & Simon (1973):
5 second task typical vs. random positions
• Similar effects in many domains:
-basketball
-x-rays
-circuit diagrams, etc.
• SF (digits only)
40

An Expert Waiter - JC
• Ericsson (1985)
• J.C. - 20 tops
• Comparison of J.C. to college students
• Critical difference = memory strategies and knowledge
• Follow-up study (Crutcher, Ericsson, & Bauder)
41

Expert Waiters Study: A Trial t-bone rare baked potato blue cheese filet mignon well-done rice thousand island sirloin medium rice oil and v inegar
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JC’s Strategies
Temperature well done medium well medium medium rare rare
Salad Dressings thousand island blue cheese oil & vinegar tbo
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Characteristics of Experts
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Autobiographical Memory
• Memory for events and issues related to yourself
• Naturally occurring events
• Rapidly growing interest
• Wide variety of topics
• High ecological validity
45

• Flashbulb Memories
– Brown & Kulik (1977)
– High level of surprise
– High level of emotional arousal
– Recent Research (Weaver, 1993)
• Schemas & Autobiographical Memory
– Generalized, abstract knowledge structures
– Memory for common, ordinary events
– Variable instantiation
– False memories
– Consistency bias
– Repisodic Memory
46

• Source Monitoring
– Origin of a memory
– Actual versus imagined action
– Marsh & Colleagues (1997)
– Henkel & Colleagues (2000)
47

Flashbulb Memory Demonstration
48

Schematization of Memory
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Eyewitness Testimony
• The ‘gentleman bandit’ (1979)
• Identifying faces
– Recognition accuracy
• Time and attention
• Reintz, et al. (1994, p 45)
– Length of retention interval
– Intervening info
• Misleading post-event info
50

Misinformation Effect
• Caused by misleading information given after viewing an earlier event
• RI = retroactive inhibition or interference
• Classic experiment - Loftus (1978)
51

Slides:
Loftus (1978)

Delay: 20 minutes to 1 week

Question Answering

Critical Question: consist ent or inconsist ent detail

Test: Select 1 or 2 slides ma tching previously-viewed slide
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Loftus (1978) Results
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