Helen Li
Louisa Luk
Zoe Cheung
Elizabeth Lam

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After the unification of Italy in 1870, the new state was governed by Liberal politicians, who didn’t support the idea of people participating in the government (e.g to vote)
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Liberals hence do not represent the wishes of the people
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Women were not allowed to vote
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There was often corruption within the government (e.g. bribery) ~ governmentsupported candidates ought to win!

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Proportional Representation was introduced in August 1919
Aim:
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To mark an end to ‘transformismo’ and introduce mass politics and a democratic system for the government
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To integrate new elite and masses in the
Parliament, hence helping the Parliament serve as a “mirror” of public opinion

Problems:
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The traditional “Parties soon found themselves somewhat of a minority within the Parliament.
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PR led to the formation of a coalition government ~ this proved to be highly inefficient due to split opinions.
In between 1919 and 1922, five Prime Ministers were elected, nearly all from different Parties.
The PSI (Socialists) and PPI (Catholic Party) became the two largest parties within the
Parliament during the course of 1919 to 1922 ~ hence led to the Red Biennium
The government was overall highly unstable

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People’s right to vote gradually increased over the years
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Before 1913, the voting franchise was limited only to 2.5% of Italy’s population
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By 1918, the universal male suffrage was introduced

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Coalition governments formed as a result of PSI (Socialists) and PPI (Catholic Popolari) refusing to cooperate
System returned to transformismo-style politics i.e. partnership between political parties
Failure of PPI and PSI to cooperate led five brief governments between 1918 and 1922 (Bonomi, Orlando, Giolitti, Nitti and
Facta)
Governments largely unrepresentative of opinion in
Parliament and Italy herself unable to gain credibility OR consolidate liberal regimes
Attempts to help masses e.g. bread subsidies, fairer tax, 8-hr working days
Measures did NOT satisfy Radicals; worried the high-class as well
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Succession of 5 different governments failed to solve Italy’s social, economic and political problems

11%
24%
1913 election results
65%
Giolittians
PSI (Socialists)
Others
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In 1913 government largely consisted of three general political parties
Largely corrupted and disorganized transformismo

4%
5%
13%
1919 election results (New
Proportional Representation system of 54 constituencies)
Giolittians
20%
6%
3%
18%
31%
PSI
(Socialists)
PPI (Catholic
Popolari)
Right
Liberals
Reformist
Socialists
Radicals
War veterans
Others
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1919 election results after
Proportional
Representation was first introduced
54 huge constituencies
508 deputies

9%
22%
14%
1921 election results
Giolittians
10%
26%
2%
7%
3%
2%
5%
Nationalists
Fascists
Slavs, Germans
PCI Communists
Reformist Socialists
Right Liberals
Radicals
Others
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Pie chart shows the worst of effects of coalition governments with 54 constituencies plus 535 deputies elected on party list system

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The Italian Socialists Party (PSI) was founded in
Genoa in 1892
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The PSI became a mainstream Italian political party by the 1910s
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The PSI had improving electoral results during the
1910s
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Despite the party’s impressive electoral results, it remained divided into two branches: the Reformists
(PSI) and the Maximalists (PCI).
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The Maximalists (PCI) eventually broke off from the party in 1921 to form the Communist Party of Italy.
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In the 1919 general election, the PSI reached its peak popularity, winning 32% of the votes and 156 seats in the Chamber of Deputies (lower house of the
Parliament)

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The Italian Peoples’ Party (PPI) was founded in 1919 by Luigi
Sturzo, a Catholic priest
The PPI was backed by Pope Benedict XI to oppose the increasingly popular socialists (PSI)
In the 1919 general election, the party won 20.1% of the votes and 100 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, making it the second largest party after the PSI at the time.
The PPI was divided into factions, the Catholic Democrats and the Moderate Clericalists. The Catholic Democrats were favourable in accord with the Socialists whilst the Moderate
Clericalists supported an alliance with the liberal parties.
Some Populars joined Mussolini’s first government in 1922, leading to a division between those in the party that supported
Mussolini and those who opposed him.
The PPI believed in Christian Democracy (Sturzo was a father/founder) which is a political ideology that seeks to implement Christian practices public policy. In practice,
Christian democracy is often considered conservative on cultural, social and moral issues (social conservatism) and progressive on fiscal and economic issues.

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Founded in Rome on November 9, 1921, it marked the transformation of the paramilitary Fasci Italiani di
Combattimento into a more coherent political group (the
Fasci di Combattimento had been founded by Mussolini in
Milan's Piazza San Sepolcro, on March 23, 1919).
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The PNF was instrumental in directing and popularizing support for Mussolini's ideology. In the early years, groups within the PNF called Black shirts built a base of power by violently attacking socialists and their institutions.
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The PNF was the main agent of an attempted coup d'état on October 28, 1922, the March on Rome. Even though the coup failed in giving power directly to the PNF, it nonetheless resulted in a parallel agreement between
Mussolini and King Victor Emmanuel III that made Mussolini the head of the Italian government.
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Initially the party harboured anti-clerical and republican values, but always maintained a nationalist agenda combined with degrees of statism and fervent anticommunism.