Chapter 10
Remaking the World: Environmental
Frontiers before 1000 C.E.
Review Questions






HOW DID geography influence the transmission of culture in
sub-Saharan Africa and the Americas?
WHAT WERE the environmental consequences of the Islamic
conquests in Africa and Eurasia?
WHERE DID Christendom expand in the eighth and ninth
centuries?
HOW DID Japan, China, and the states of southeast Asia seek
to stimulate economic growth?
HOW DID Pacific islanders succeed in colonizing the Pacific?
HOW WIDESPREAD during the history of this period was
ecological experiment?
Geography Affects Culture: Africa and America

Difficulty of overcoming African geographical barriers:
 Sahara desert, coasts with few seaports, difficult rivers impede travel
 Large-scale migrations (Bantu) take longer than other continents

Dense populations develop at western end of Sahel by 100 C.E.
 Senegambia region: mixed economy of farmers, ironworkers
 Ghana and Gao emerge as powerful states, 1000 C.E.
 Sacred kingship apparent in Ghana capital of Kambi-Saleh
 Trade and travel focus on reaching north of Sahara
 Ethiopia at eastern end of Sahel focused on Indian Ocean & Nile
American isolation: sporadic contact w/Asia, Europe in pre-Columbus era
 N/S travel inhibited by mountain ranges, rivers
 Civilizations develop in Andes (S. America), Mesoamerica, N. American SW
 Dramatic shifts in climate/geography inhibit contact with other regions
 See Study Aid #10, Table 10.2 (Expanding States) for specific comparisons
of regions

Figure of a sacred king. The Oni, or king, of lle-lfe, excavated at lta
Yemoo, Nigeria in 1957, 1000-1100 C.E. The king is shown draped in
beads, a symbol of royalty.
Nazca lines. The Nazca made the vast images
for which they are famous by scraping the surface
of the desert in Peru to reveal the bare rock
underneath. But why did they do it? Vivid, intricate
designs, such as this monkey, were too big to be
fully visible except from the air. The people who
made them can only have experienced them by
walking the pathways the patterns made. The
straight lines that accompany the images may
have served as maps, perhaps indicating
underground irrigation channels, but the pictures
remain a mystery.
Mayan kings. The legitimacy that royal ancestry conferred was an important part of
Maya kingship— especially when things were going badly. Yax Pasaj, who became king
of Copán in 763, when he was still a small boy, ruled in a time of economic decline and
political unrest. This may be why he had himself depicted in the company of all Copán’s
previous rulers, seated as if in conference around a small stone platform.
Royal Bloodletting. The reign of
Itzamnaaj B’alam (“Shield Jaguar”) II
of Yaxchilián (681-742), in what is
today Mexico, produced some of the
finest stone reliefs in which Maya
rulers commemorated their
performance of important rituals. The
most common ritual was royal
bloodletting, which was intended to
provoke visions. During these
bloodlettings, kings communicated
with ancestor’s or gods.
The Dresden codex. The Maya almanac
known as the Dresden Codex contains a wealth
of data on agriculture, divination, and religion.
But its most remarkable contents are the
detailed astronomical observations and
predictions,including the table recording the
cycle of Venus, one page of which is shown
here. The red bars and dots at bottom right are
numbers, adding up to 584—the average
number of days between the dates on which
Venus rises with the sun. Such dates were
favorable for war and sometimes foretold
drought and death. The gods depicted
represent from top to bottom, the Morning Star,
Venus as bringer of war, and Venus demanding
sacrifice.
Environmental Effects of Islam in Africa, Asia

Military expansion brings contact with new peoples, foods.



Rice, citrus, cotton, dates, sugarcane
From Mediterranean through Mideast, arid SW Asia, Sahel,
savanna, tropical forests in Africa into India, SE Asia
Systematic introduction of new crops sponsored by Islamic rulers
Stimulates new forms of irrigation--underground tunnels, wells
 Increased clearance of forests, use of fertilizers
 Free markets encourage high productivity


Expansion of markets



12,000 villages along Guadalquivir River in Spain (Cordoba)
E/W trade: sea routes, land caravans
Relative peace within empire increases quantity/value of trade
Watermill. Increased
agricultural output caused
demand for more and bigger
mills to grind grain. Most have
not survived, but a fine
example of medieval watermill
technology, pictured here, is
on the Orontes River at Hama,
Syria. Water wheels on this
scale also hoisted water from
riverbeds to aqueducts and
irrigation channels.
Mayan Civilization


Increased food production plus heightened trade in “cash”
crops such as cacao increase population.
Elites help support this through religious practices




Bloodletting rituals “feed” gods, legitimate rulers
Mass sacrifice of captive slaves, warriors
Role of cacao throughout Mesoamerica
Agricultural techniques spread north


SW North America: Chaco canyon, Pueblo cultures
Mississippian cultures: Cahokia, mound building in Southeast


Ceremonial platforms built on terraced earthen pyramids
Maya “collapse” may have in large part been a failure in
agricultural production.
Christendom Expands

Military expansion into new areas in Central Europe




Establishment of new Christian states in Slavic lands, Bulgaria



Conversion strategies
Co-opting pagan symbols, rituals, sacred sites
Role of Charlemagne as French king, Holy Roman Emperor
Role of Vikings, North sea region
Establishment of new Christian states in Asturias and
Barcelona in Spain
Expansion into areas of pagan Britain
China’s Economic, Political Growth



Government encourages expansion through building of canal systems and more
extensive irrigation.
 Price regulations, government granaries create stable supply
 Creation of Grand Canal, roads
 Efficient bureaucracy: taxation, justice officials travel widely
Population expands, moves into uncultivated areas
 Southward shift into areas of rice cultivation
 Buddhist/Daoist monasteries help development in frontier regions
Encouragement of small land holdings increases food production
 Tang Dynasty leaders break up large landholdings
 Major land reform of 737 divides estate lands among workers
The Grand Canal. China’s
ancient canals are still useful
to commerce. Here, long
lines of barges sail the Grand
Canal, an artificial waterway
that was first built in the
seventh century C.E.
The temple of Borobodur on the Indonesian island of Java began to receive pilgrims in the
early 800s. Visitors, emerging from the dense tropical forest that surrounded the site, would
ascend through four galleries, where stories of virtuous Buddhists were carved in relief
eventually reaching the realm of Enlightenment— the circular platform, guarded by statues of
Bodhisattvas.
Japanese Expansion

Governmental policies encourage population growth through
adoption of new technologies in rice production and plowing.



Early dynasties consolidate power by 700 C.E.
Intensive management of limited agricultural land
Encouragement to expand into and colonize frontier regions
and to displace indigenous populations

Expansion: northern Honshu to conquer native Emishi
Southeast Asia

Growth of Khmer kingdom (Cambodia) along with Viet, Cham
regions
 Rich agricultural lands along Mekong river
 Ivory, wood, 3 crops of rice yearly

New agricultural technologies increase food production.
Populations rise and new states appear: Srivijaya, Sailendra.
Srivijaya and Sailendra are also boosted by increased trade
through the South Pacific islands.


The Settlement of Polynesia

Development of intensive agriculture on small islands in
Micronesia


Development of new technologies such as outrigger canoes



Pohnpei and monumental religious architecture
new navigation techniques
Oral traditions to retain knowledge
Spread of Polynesians across the Pacific Ocean


First to Tahiti, then Marquesas, Hawaii final stop
Common linguistic roots, religious concepts: Mana
Today’s Question
Do we have any place left to go?
Consider






The voyages of the Polynesians were amazing feats of exploration and
settlement, opening up a whole new world for human communities. They
also filled the last great hole in human habitation outside of Antarctica.
Other new opportunities in the time of this chapter were also on
ecological frontiers
And the prospect of environmental catastrophe again is an issue
What other environments offer possible destinations for human
occupation?
Is colonization of undersea environments, nearby planets, or even deep
space a real possibility?
What are the implications if all frontiers close?