HSC Option 4
Improving
Performance
Focus Question 1
How do athletes train for
improved performance?
Strength training
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The main goal of strength training is to increase the maximum force
that a particular muscle group can generate
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Muscles will be stronger if exercised regularly at high enough
intensity
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Strength training can take different forms and can involve a variety
of techniques
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During strength training, elements of isotonic, isometric and
isokinetic contractions can be used
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Training incorporates elements of each depending on types of
exercises, machinery and the strength development being sought
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Free weights are preferred by most body-builders and people
seeking pure strength because they enable the participant to isolate
muscles completely, and give the joints and limbs an opportunity to
move along their natural planes
Four types of strength:
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Absolute strength: the maximum force that can
be generated by a muscle e.g. weight lifting
Relative strength: the maximum strength that
can be generated by muscle relative to a
person’s weight e.g. male ballet dancer
Strength endurance: the ability for a muscle to
withstand fatigue and exert a force repeatedly
over an extended period of time E.g. rower
Speed strength: the ability to apply a force at a
rapid rate e.g. sprint start
Terms used in Strength Training:
Term
Definition
Repetition
The number of times an exercise is
repeated without rest
Resistance
The weight or load
Set
A number of repetitions done in succession
Repetition Maximal
The maximal weight you can lift a number
of times.
Rest
The period of time between each set
Periodisation:
process of varying the training load over
discrete periods of time
Strength requirements differ in terms of:
• How heavy the weight is
• The number of repetitions
• The speed it is being lifted
Exercise Designed for Major Muscle
Groups:
All strength programs utilise repetition of exercises and overload to
work a muscle group.
A muscle that is worked close to its capacity (above 2/3 of max) to
generate peak force will experience gains in strength.
By varying the resistance, speed, repetitions, sets and rest, the
required muscle fibres are recruited and developed.
A session should start involving large muscle groups early and
commence specific exercises towards the end.
Strength training is done for a number of
reasons
 to
develop muscular strength or
endurance
 to develop power
 to lose weight
 to get some muscle definition
Safe performance requires:
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Individually developed programs that discourage
competition
Adequate warm up and cool down – emphasis on
stretching
Focus on major muscle groups
Concentration on form/technique – not on increasing
resistance too quickly
Monitoring progress
Using a spotter if uncertain of ability
Adequately maintained equipment
Special techniques
Breathing in as lifting and out as lowering
Never holding one’s breath – increases blood pressure
Lifting with rhythm – not jerky movements
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Strength training can be tailored to the
specific needs of the individual i.e. upper
body or lower body, sport specific, to suit
body type, health issues, past injuries etc.
Gyms can provide information on what
exercises are available for specific body
parts and whether these are free weights
or machines
Some possible exercises
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chest: flat dumbbell press; flat dumbbell fly; machine press
biceps: seated biceps curl (both arms), curl with a twist,
alternate arm curl
triceps: lying dumbbell extension; seated one-arm triceps
overhead extension; triceps push down machine
shoulder: lateral shoulder raises; seated dumbbell press; chin
ups
back: single or double bent arm dumbbell row; seated pull row,
lateral pull down ( in front and behind head, narrow and wide
grip)
abdominals: knee-raised crunches; alternate knee in crunches;
abdominal machine
quadriceps: variety of squats; leg extension machine
calf: calf raises ( standing or seated, weighted or not, toe in or
out, machine or free
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Elastics – resistance that is created by the
band increases as the band is stretched.
Exposure to a progressively increasing
stimulus ensures that the muscle is
strengthened through the full ROM.
Hydraulics – Resistance is altered through
cylinder adjustments and a response to
speed of action
Hydraulics provides resistance through
both phases of a movement (eg. push and
pull)
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Weight Training – plates, dumbbells
Weight discs or plates anchored to
barbells comprise free weights. The exact
weight can be set to ensure th overload
principle applies
Dumbbells consist of two weights attached
to a short bar, designed to be lifted with
one hand
Dumbbells are important in injury rehab,
when a specific muscle needs to be
targeted as a part of injury rehab.
Isotonic training:
Isotonic programs use free weights with fixed
resistance and tailor loads to allow completion
of an exercise a desired number of times.
During isotonic training, the muscle length
changes constantly as the resistance is moved
through a full range motion.
Advantages:
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Minimal equipment
More specificity
Variations easily
adapted to suit most
sports
Most common
Cheap, accessible and
easy to learn
Disadvantages:
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May encourage poor
technique
Moderate level of
injury
Resistance does not
remain maximal
through the full range
of movement, failing
to develop fibres fully
Isometric training:
During this type of training, the muscles develop
tension but do not change in length.
A typical isometric training session is pushing or
pulling against an immovable object.
Tension develops in the muscle because there is
resistance but the muscle does not shorten since
the object will not move.
Advantages:
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Minimal equipment
Helpful for weak
points in muscle
contractions
Easy to learn, quick,
easy to perform
Valuable in rehab
Disadvantages:
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Not functional – poor
specificity
Reduces speed
Large changes in
blood pressure when
using large muscle
groups
Difficult to measure
gains
Does not produce
muscular endurance
Isokinetic training:
This involves the use of elaborate
machines that allow maximum tension to
develop in the muscle through the full
range of motion.
Therefore the level of resistance varies,
depending on the joint angle.
Advantages:
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Most beneficial as it
activates the largest
number of muscle units
Strength gains are
constant throughout the
full range of movement
because the level of
resistance offered is
constant
Gains in strength are
longer lasting
Speed specific –
slower/equal to
endurance speed used in
training
Good for rehab
Disadvantages:
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Very expensive
machinery
Few equipment options
available
Poor specificity –
confined to movements
of the machine many of
which are not sports
specific
Aerobic training
Continuous/uniform
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Sustained and enduring training – low to
moderate intensity. Used to increase CV
endurance
Needs to be matched to an athletes fitness level
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Endurance training places demands on the
body’s ability to deliver oxygen to muscle cells.
Progressively increasing stress is matched by
appropriate adaptation, causing the body to
vastly improve oxygen delivery, cell functioning
and energy transfer.
Changes occur in the blood lipids, blood
pressure and ability to handle heat and
improved oxidation of glycogen and fats.
Training for Endurance
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Endurance training targets the aerobic system.
It causes changes to the body’s oxygen
transport system
Leads to the preferential recruitment of slow
twitch muscle fibres which:
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Have a high capillary density
Red in colour
Are capable of sustained contraction.
Training should be specific to
sport/event
 Examples of principle training
methods used are:
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interval training
 long, slow distance training ( lowintensity)
 Fartlek training
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Area
Effect
How this improves training
Fuel storage and
utilisation
Increased haemoglobin
More oxygen carried to working muscles
Increased myoglobin
More oxygen from cell membrane to mitochondria where fuel is burnt
Increased ability to use fat
Reserve fuel used earlier in endurance events
Increased storage of ATP and PC
Immediate fuel storage increased up to 25%
Increased glycogen storage
Fuel for lactic acid and aerobic systems increased
Increased ability to use glucose
Increased enzyme activity - faster breakdown of glycogen
Increased heart size
Particularly left ventricle – more blood available/heart beat
Decreased heart rate
Sign of increased heart efficiency as it is able to supply required blood with
less heart beats/min
Increased stroke volume
More blood/stroke
Increased cardiac output
More blood available to tissues
Increased oxygen uptake
Increased ability for muscles to extract and utilise oxygen delivered by blood
Increased cardiac output
More blood for tissues
Increased stroke volume
More blood/stroke
Respiration
Increased efficiency
More oxygen extracted from air by alveoli and delivered to muscles
Other
Increased muscle size
More strength
Decreased body fat
Less excess to carry
Increased power/strength
Faster/more forceful movements
Increased muscle elasticity
Increased muscle power – reduced injury risk
Increased mitochondria
More sites on muscle fibre for burning fuel
Oxygen transport
system at rest
Oxygen transport
system at
maximal exercise
Resistance training for endurance
events
Muscular endurance is important in most sports, including middleand long-distance running and games such as basketball, soccer,
netball and touch football.
For continuous type movements that form the basis of these
activities, the development of maximal power is not an advantage
because fast-twitch fibres would be preferentially recruited when
slow-twitch fibres are more appropriate.
Effective endurance training requires the use of less resistance and
more repetitions than is required for absolute strength training. The
level of resistance needs to be not more than 66 per cent of the
maximum that can be lifted for each exercise (1 RM).
Resistances less than 66 per cent of
maximum will result in the type of
adaptation in the muscles that will
enhance endurance, including:
 larger and more numerous mitochondria
in the muscle cells
 increased capillary density, ensuring
plentiful oxygen supply to the muscles
 improved aerobic enzyme activity,
resulting in better oxidation of fuel.
A general resistance prescription
for endurance is:
 repetitions
maximum — 15 to 30
 sets — three to four
 speed — moderate
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frequency — three to four days per
week.
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A prescription for endurance needs to be
individualised, and should specifically address
the sport or activity. This is particularly relevant
to the number of repetitions required.
As the number of repetitions is raised, strength
will decrease and endurance increase.
If training for long-distance events, use of
lighter weights and many repetitions is
appropriate.
However, if training for shorter events such as a
400- or 800-metre run, anaerobic threshold
training needs to be combined with resistances
in the order of 15 to 25 RM.
Measuring training effect (MAX
VO²)
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MAX VO2 is the greatest volume of oxygen that
can be consumed by the body during exercise
per minute at sea level
Best single measurement of endurance and
aerobic capacity
High max oxygen consumption is one of the
major determinants of success in aerobic
activities e.g. swimming. Other factors include:
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high lactate threshold
high economy of effort
high percentage of Slow twitch muscle fibres
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Laboratory test for VO2 MAX usually involves performing
on a treadmill or bicycle ergometer while attached to
machines which measure heart rate and ventilation
Oxygen consumption continues to increase linearly with
increases in workload ( increased speed or incline on the
treadmill) until a point is reached at which an increase in
intensity does not lead to an increase in oxygen
consumption- this is the MAX VO2
Indications that MAX VO2 has been reached include
hyperventilation and a heart rate very near to max
Field tests usually involve using estimates based on
charts of extrapolated measures of MAX VO2 devised
from simple exercises conducted at sub maximal levels
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E.g. beep test/ ‘multistage’ fitness test
Coopers 12 minute run
1.6k run
fartlek
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Pace and terrain variations develop a need
for planning for this type of training
Ideal training method for early pre-season
to reintroduce athletes to the more
demanding endurance work after the offseason
Long interval
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This method uses reps of high speed
intensity work followed by periods of
recovery to develop aerobic fitness
Workout periods are generally 2-5 mins,
with rest periods up to 2 mins. The
shorter the rest period, the harder the
workout session.
Anaerobic training
Training for power and speed
Developing power through
resistance/weight training
Starting strength: the ability to ‘turn on’ as many fibres as
possible in the performance of a movement.
•Important in movements such as power lifting
•Momentum is generated before ATP supplies are depleted
Explosive strength: the ability to extend the ‘turned on’ period
of explosiveness.
•Seen in acceleration of the body or object
•Important in activities such as shot put, javelin throwing, and
high jump
•Muscle fibres contract quickly as creatine phosphate works rapidly
and repeatedly, resynthesising ADP back to ATP.
•Resistance programs designed to develop speed and power will
seek to enhance fast-twitch fibres involved in the activity.
•If the resistance (weight) is too heavy, the exercises will
necessarily be performed slowly, leading to recruitment of slowtwitch fibres.
•A general exercise program for power would include:
5-10 RM ( resistance 60 % to 75% of maximal)
3 to 4 sets
5 minutes between sets
Fast exercise speed
3 to 4 days a week
To develop speed, the resistance is medium - high, and
contractions are executed quickly. The principle of specificity to
the activity is important.
Application
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Resistance training program
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Choose any sport or activity
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Use a range of exercises similar to those in 14.1 (pg 434-5) to
design a resistance training program that develops power/speed as
required in a particular sport such as boxing or running. Detail your
exercise prescription.
Plyometric Training
Plyometric training: plyometrics refers to a special
range of exercises in which a muscle is lengthened
using an eccentric contraction and this is rapidly
followed by a shortening or concentric contraction.
Plyometrics has considerable value in power
development because it has been demonstrated that
if muscle is stretched (preloaded) before it is
shortened it will contract more forcefully. Plyometrics
has been used for decades to improve performances
in sports such as athletics, b’ball; where the
development of reactive power is critical.
short interval
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Similar to long interval but exercise
periods are brief and recovery longer to
enable restoration of ATP stores
Improves the muscle’s ability to tolerate
lactic acid
Circuit formats can be utilised to achieve
the aims of short interval
Training for Flexibility
Types of flexibility training and
the specifics of performance
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Static flexibility is the range of motion about a joint
Dynamic flexibility is the opposition or resistance of a
joint to motion
Flexibility is limited by the structures in and around
joints- such as the bones, muscles, ligaments, tendons,
and the overlying skin
Most of these are elastic so therefore their ability to
stretch can be improved with practice.
Bones are not elastic therefore the flexibility of some
joints is limited by the shape of the bones and cannot be
improved past a certain point
Type of
Flexibility
Training
Definition
Advantages
Disadvantages
Best suited
for…
Static
Holding a stretch at its
limit for 15-30 seconds
- Unlikely to result in
injure
- does not increase
flexibility through full
range of movement
All activity
Ballistic
A muscle is taken to its
limit, then over stretched
by bouncing
- Similar in its speed
and body movement to
actual sporting activity
- Can cause muscle
soreness and injury, by
activating the stretch
reflex
Ballet,
gymnastics
Dynamic
Rhythmical movement of
major muscles through full
range of movement
- Stretches the muscle
groups that cross the
major joints
- Stretches through
the full range of
movement
- May not stretch sport
specific smaller muscle
groups
Swimming,
aerobics
P.N.F
A gentle stretch, with an
isometric muscle
contraction against a
resistance, followed by
relaxation of that muscle
and a further stretch
- Develops range of
motion
- Requires a partner that
understands what to do
All sports
Stretching can be: A stretching regime as part of a warm up/cool
down
 Regular scheduled stretching programs over 2-5
days per week, for 15-30 minutes per day with
stretches held for 10-30sec.
 Performed statically, dynamically, ballistically, or
PNF
 Physiotherapists and sports trainers often use
tools such as Flexibility Screening Test to screen
athletes, predict possible sites of injuries,
weakness in athlete and suitability for different
sports.
Contraindications for flexibility
training
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Contraindicated exercises are those exercises that are seen as being
potentially dangerous
Some of these may be used by elite athletes or for rehabilitation,
but they are not advised for the general population
Being an effective coach, trainer, athlete, or fitness leader involves
developing an understanding of the factors that increase the risk of
injury, being able to evaluate exercises, being able identify the
elements that cause injury and being able to modify potentially
dangerous exercises
Contraindicated exercises are usually recognised when numerous
injuries arise from these exercises and are treated by doctors and
physios
Factors include:
extreme movement- go beyond normal and safe range
e.g.
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ballistic movement- performed quickly and without control, dangerous as they
place pressure on joints
e.g.
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excessive load- placed on joints or muscles
e.g.
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sustained movement- movements that involve sustained pressure on muscle
groups or joints can be dangerous
e.g.
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repetitive movement- excessive repetition of any movement can place strain
on body, lead to injuries, strain injuries
e.g.
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Imbalance- developing one muscle group (agonist) while not developing the
opposite muscle group ( antagonist)
e.g.
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Skill training
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Most individual and team sports require
the athletes to be able to perform skills
competently.
The difference between two teams or
individual athletes is not always about
aerobic or anaerobic capacity, strength or
flexibility.
Coaches often spend long periods of time
improving the performance of basic and
complex skills involved in their sports.
Drills practice
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It is important for the Coach to plan activities/training session that
challenge the athlete
Key point- variety.
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Athletes will be motivated to perform if training is kept interesting and
challenging
Variety of drills to practice a particular skill
Modifying a well-learned drill by adding defence, obstacles, or other variables
adds variety to the training session and makes it more game like- variety of
practice methods
Demonstrations and explanations should be clear and concise, feedback about
practice and performance should be frequent and appropriate.
Skill practices vary according to:
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performer’s skill levels
performer’s motivation
practice methods used
requirements of the sport
Analysis of technique
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To provide relevant instruction and feedback a coach requires good
skills of observation and analysis
The coach requires the ability to analyse skills into their component
parts, and to identify the part that is causing trouble. E.g.
Coaches can use video analysis for evaluation purposes. What would
be the advantage of this??
Videos can also be used to show performances to athletes, to
review team plays, to note faults, and to view another team ( note
weaknesses or moves)
Methods which can be used to analyse technique include
biofeedback, photos, biomechanical analysis and match report
sheets
Technique correction
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Once a problem has been identified it is the
responsibility of the athlete to use this information to
modify their performance
Using a variety of feedback methods and communication
are important at this stage because the athlete needs to
understand the information, remember it, correct the
performance and practice it.
The revised technique needs to be practiced until the
performance becomes automatic.
Many athletes are able to self correct
Modified and small-sided games
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The skills of the real game are utilised on
modified areas of play, or using modified
rules
These are important training techniques
as they mimic skills and tactics
They can also impose certain conditions
(conditional games) to practice a certain
skill
Games for specific outcomes
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Small games can be created to achieve a
specific outcome eg. Defensive skills,
attacking ability, creating space
Provide opportunity for concentrated
practice and decision making within
structures that closely resemble the game
situation
Functional practice – address specific
elements of a game causing concern
Focus Question 2
What are the
planning
considerations for
improving
performance?
Initial Planning Considerations
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Training programs need to be thoroughly
planned if the potential of players and the
performance of teams are to be optimised
Performance and fitness needs
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Data is collected from previous seasons
and current performances to develop
effective programs
This becomes the basis of developing
individual and team considerations
Eg individual – physical fitness, skills
Team – team goals, leadership(captain)
Schedule of events/competitions
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Careful consideration needed to avoid
over-committing athletes and inhibiting
performance.
Data needs to be analysed such as main
competitions, area and national
championships etc, to pace training
programs and performance.
Climate and season
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Initial planning needs to consider seasonal
variations together with climatic influences
Heat, wind, rain, cold, fog and humidity
are examples of climatic considerations
Clothing and attire must address these
issues.
Planning a training year phases of Competition
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Many athletes train all year to maintain
fitness
Periodisation: the dividing of a program
into phases
Post/Off Season/Transition Phase
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Aim: prevent weight gain (by modifying diet), maintain
an aerobic fitness base + strength + skill level, repair
injuries
This is the phase in which recovery occurs. Coaches
should encourage active physiological and psychological
recovery. (as the principle of reversibility can have an
effect on the athletes)
Any injury should be managed at this stage.
Involves recreational and social activities, variety is
important (also in the environment)
Low intensity, high volume
One week total rest at the conclusion of the competition
may be wise
Pre Season
Training/Preparation Phase
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6-12 weeks before the start of the season
Aim: The main aim of this phase is to reach a level of
fitness that will see the athlete competing at their best
with a reduction in the likelihood of injury. There should
be an increase in intensity as the athlete begins with
general whole-body conditioning and then progresses to
sport-specific fitness work and technique is developed.
High volume, moderate intensity
A variety of training methods should be used
incorporating endurance and power eg Fartlek + interval
In Season Training/Competition
Phase
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Aim: maintain fitness, strength + skills
developed in the pre season
Maintaining fitness by increasing intensity and
decreasing volume
Focus: gain competitive experience, tactics and
strategies, mental skills
Specificity and games + game-like practice is
important
The athletes ability to load (train) and unload
(recover, regenerate) will influence the level of
intensity
Off Season/Transition Phase
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Physical and mental recovery from training
and competition
Off- season is characterised by
1 week of total rest
Remaining time consisting of active rest,
with training sessions and intensity
decreased
Change of environment
Diet changes to reflect decreased load
subphases
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Macrocycles are long term planning
frameworks and may represent an entire
planning program (annual plan)
Mesocycles are periods of 4-8 weeks
Microcycles are short term 7-10 days
Mesocycles and microcycles allow for the
planning of specific objectives to be
achieved
Peaking for Performance
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Peaking: phase of training in which performance is
optimised to meet the demands of a race/competition, a
temporary state
Characteristics of peaking:
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High health/fitness
Quick recovery from training
Neuromuscular coordination
self confidence/motivation
Mental alertness
Technical/tactical preparation is optimal
Program should be organised so that physical and mental states
are optimal
Involves a sequential, cumulative training program
Tapering
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Tapering: a period of reduced training
immediately prior to competition, can increase
the strength and power of the athlete
7-10 days is appropriate for most sports
Reasons: allows tissue to rebuild, heal injuries,
replace energy stores
Effects differ: good in swimming, minimal for
running
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Tapering (varies according to sport 7-14 days) involves a reduction in
volume and intensity and is fundamental for allowing tissue to rebuild/heal
and for the full replacement of energy/glycogen stores. Part of the inseason phase, duration depending on whether an athlete must perform
every week or for a major competition. Following a high quality preparation
it brings about an increase in strength and power as it takes stress of
muscles, immune and nervous systems. Diet must be considered as overeating, can be a problem during tapering.
Example: swimmers gain benefits by tapering for two weeks. No loss in
maximal aerobic capacity if training is reduced by 60%. Those tested had a
3.1% improved performance and a 17-24% increase in arm strength.
There are four variables to consider:
Taper Duration - ensures training is reduced to allow recovery without loss
of fitness. Research shows between 7 and 14 days caters for both.
Training Volume – Research shows that reducing the volume gradually up
to 60% allows the body’s tissue to recover from excess training easily and
utilise energy to improve fitness parameters.
Exercise Intensity – intensity remains the same but frequency or repetitions
decrease therefore an improvement in performance due to less damage
from training.
Exercise Frequency – frequency should remain relatively stable as athletes
are familiar with training at certain times. This is providing the other three
variables are manipulated to prepare the athlete for optimal performance.
How to Prevent Overtraining:
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Athletes and coaches should be aware, recognise it early
and take the appropriate rest. Coaches should also be
considering:
Increase training loads gradually
Periodisation of training must be planned throughout the
year
Taper the program leading into major competitions
Ensure the athlete is maintaining a balanced lifestyle
Adapt training to suit the environmental conditions
Alternate training sessions
Environmental Considerations
An athletes performance can be affected
by a number of environmental conditions
including:
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Weather
Altitude
Pollution
Altitude
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Altitude: height above sea level
Hypoxia: lack of an adequate supply of oxygen. radiation
Different conditions: air is less dense, lower humidity, lower air
temperature, solar
Heights > 1500m above sea level affect the body’s ability to perform
physical work
Aerobic capacity is reduced by 3% for every 300m ascended above 1500m
In the Mexico City Olympics 1968, endurance athletes had problems with
the 2290m altitude
Decreased barometric pressure leads to decreased ability to take in oxygen,
hence decreasing metabolism of glycogen.
Max VO2 decreases due to decrease in arterial oxygen content, though at
higher altitudes it is explained by a decrease in cardiac output.
Lower humidity and air temperatures at altitude create temperature
regulation problems and dehydration.
There is less moisture in the air to absorb UV radiation.
Less resistance leads to increased distances thrown.
Acclimatisation
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Acclimatisation: The hypoxia stimulates physiological adaptations both at
rest and during exercise. This is called acclimatisation
Immediate response:
 Hyperventilation (increase ventilation)
 Increased cardiac output
 Increased blood pressure
Long term adjustments:
 Red blood cells ^
 Changes to tissue/cells
Acclimatisation is a gradual process taking from 1 week to one month
(depending on the altitude)
The benefits are lost within 2-3 weeks after returning to sea level
3 phase process:
Increase in lung ventilation
Red blood cells
Capillarisation of muscle cells
Problem: advantages of acclimatisation are often outweighed by the
reduced training volume needed to incorporate the altitude training
Elements to be considered when
designing a training session
Health and safety considerations
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Disregard for health and safety can lead to injury.
Important considerations include:
Injury prevention – warmup/cooldown and stretching
Protective equipment – should be used during
practice and games
General equipment – all needs to be checked for
safety
Apparel – should be comfortable as well as provide
protection
Environmental hazards – UV protection (sunscreen,
sunglasses, hats etc)
Illness – virus transfer must be minimised eg water
bottle use
Providing an overview of the
session
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At the beginning of a training session, it is
common for a coach to provide a brief overview
of what will be required in the session
This ensures that the intentions of the coach
and expectations of the players is channelled in
the same direction.
It also provides a forum for specific issues such
as recording attendance, assessment of injuries,
discussion of goals, tactics, discussion of
previous performance
Warm up and cool down
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Effective warmups consist of
Phase 1 – general body warm up until the body begins
to sweat
Phase 2 – stretching
Phase 3 – callisthenics – general body exercises eg
pushups, abdominal crunches (specific to the game)
Phase 4 – skill rehearsal – performance of routines
required later in the training session
Skill instruction and practice
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Delivery of a body of knowledge from a coach to the
players
Effective delivery requires good communication skills and
prior organisation
Effective communication is:
Brief
Well timed
Specific
Constructive
Clear
Informative
Demonstrable
conditioning
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It is essential to identify the most important fitness
components for success and design sport-specific
conditioning within training sessions that will enhance
these fitness components and energy systems
In most cases, general training sessions are not
sufficient to develop the progression of physical
conditioning
During the preseason, the time allocated to conditioning
should be greater than that of the in-season or
transitional phases of a training program, to effectively
prepare the athlete for competition
evaluation
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Good coaching methods include evaluating
the training session. It allows feedback on
the effectiveness of the session and
whether specific goals were met.
After the evaluation session, the coach
and athlete can discuss any information
relating to the next training session, game
or game preparation.
Planning to avoid overtraining
Amount and intensity of training
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Overtraining can occur as a result of accumulated factors
which include:
Inappropriate increase in the frequency of training
Demands increase too rapidly which don’t allow for
adaptation
Too rapid increase of loading after injury
Too high an intensity of duration loading in endurance
training
Excessive competition with maximum demand
Excessive bias of training methods
Physiological considerations eg
lethargy, injury
It is normal to suffer from fatigue or muscle discomfort
during training, especially at the beginning of preseason
training. Coaches and athletes must be aware that
prolonged periods of training without adequate recovery
can result in overtraining
 Physiological responses to training must be monitored,
and appropriate adjustments made if the athlete is
suffering from any of the following:
Elevated resting pulse/HR, frequent minor infections,
chronic muscle soreness, lethargy, weight loss and
appetite loss, intolerance to exercise, decreased
performance
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Psychological Preparation
The Role and Use of Sports
Psychologists
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Aim: to establish mental toughness
Sports psychology: involves the study of human behaviour in sports setting
and the influence of coach, athlete and environment on performance
The sports psychiatrist aims to
 Help athletes overcome the pressures of competition
 Improve performance by teaching techniques for mental control and
alertness
 Educate and teach coaches/players
Psychological skills training (PST) can enhance both performance and selfconfidence. But these skills need to be practiced
Focusing: staying in a controlled emotional state and concentrating on the
immediate event, sometimes employs the use of cue words
Centring: process that gives the athlete a feeling of being grounded, in
control
Positive self-talk: can help in rehearsing and correcting a skill and refocusing
Relaxation Techniques
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Relaxation: characterised by a decrease in breathing rate, heart rate,
muscle activity and oxygen consumption
Anxiety: fear/apprehension as a result of a proposed threat
When arousal levels are too high performance is compromised.
Relaxation techniques are designed to prevent excessive arousal,
decreasing the physical and mental symptoms of nervousness.
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Progressive muscular relaxation: tense then relax a muscle group
Mental relaxation: visually tranquil experience relax the mind and body
Mental rehearsal: repeat a mental picture before a performance
Centred breathing: focus on breathing depth and rate
Flotation: floating in water to produce a sense of calm
Meditation: exclusion of surrounding interferences
Sports massage: manipulating soft tissue
Autogenic training: mental creation of feelings of heaviness and warmth
in the muscles
Biofeedback: uses instruments which measure changes in bodily
functions (skin temperature, breathing, heart rate etc)
Hypnosis
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Intense physical training can contribute to mental and
emotional issues in athletes. By balancing motivational
techniques and physical intensity, a coach can help avoid
the onset of overtraining.
Psychological indicators of overtraining include:
fatigue, tiredness
apathy or no motivation
irritability
anxiety
depression
headaches
insomnia
inability to relax
Physiological
Considerations
Causes:
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poor diet
stress
sleep disorders
excessive training
volume/intensity
Effects:
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insomnia
Infections
Resting Heart Rate
increases
Psychological
Considerations
Causes:
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Pressure
lack of self-confidence
Boredom
Fear
Strategies:
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change of
environment/routine
active rest
mini breaks
Focus Question 3
What ethical issues are
related to improving
performance?
USE OF DRUGS
The dangers of performance
enhancing drugs
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A star athlete can earn a lot of money and receive fame and
attention, and
they only have a short time to do their best work. Athletes know
that training is the best path to victory,
but they also understand that some drugs and other practices can
boost their efforts and offer a shortcut
Athletes can be lured into using performance-enhancing drugs
because:
• winning can attract lucrative sponsorship deals and endorsements
• society places great emphasis on success in sport
• some banned drugs can speed recovery from injury
• some athletes desire to win so much that they are willing to use
any means
• some coaches may push drug use to enhance an athlete’s chances
of winning
For strength (HGH, steroids)
HGH stimulates the body’s synthesis of the proteins that form bone
and muscle tissue, decreases body fat and increases testosterone
levels.
 HGH stimulates the growth of muscle, cartilage, and bone, and so
increases muscle size.
 It also allows tired muscles to recover quicker, which enables the
 athlete to train harder and more often.
 The side effects of using human growth hormone include:
• overgrowth of hands, feet and face (acromegaly) because of
the increased muscle and bone development in these parts
• enlarged internal organs, especially heart, kidneys, tongue
and liver
• heart problems.
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effects of HGH and steroids
For aerobic performance (EPO)
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Erythropoietin (EPO) is a naturally occurring protein hormone that is
secreted by the kidneys during low-oxygen conditions.
Endurance athletes, use EPO to increase oxygen absorption, reduce
fatigue and improve endurance by increasing the rate of red cell
production.
It is also believed that EPO increases the metabolism and the
healing process of muscles because the extra red cells carry more
oxygen and nutrients.
In someone who already has normal levels of red blood cells, the
use of EPO can lead to increased thickening (or viscosity) of the
blood causing clotting, thrombosis, heart attack and stroke.
To mask other drugs (diuretics)
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Masking agents are prohibited as they are products that have the
potential to impair the excretion of prohibited substances, to
conceal their presence in urine or other samples used in doping
control, or to change haematological (blood) parameters.
Diuretics are classified as masking agents and can be used to
control weight or mask the use of other drugs.
Depressants affect concentration and coordination, and slow the
response time to unexpected situations. Alcohol can have the same
masking affect as a diuretic by diluting urine.
Alcohol is an ergolytic aid to sports performance. This means that it
will detract from, not improve, exercise performance. It is banned
in:
aeronautic, archery, boules, karate, modern pentathlon (disciplines
involving shooting), motorcycling, tenpin bowling, powerboating.
Warne recently returned a positive sample to the banned drug Moduretic, a diuretic
often used by sports drug cheats to mask other prohibited substances including
anabolic steroids, which are often used by sports men and women to promote rapid
tissue healing after injury.
Benefits and limitations of drug
testing
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Effective drug testing programs are difficult and extremely costly to
maintain. One reason is that new performance-enhancing drugs are
constantly being developed. These drugs are usually produced in
secret and are specifically designed to avoid detection by current
testing methods.
Some performance-enhancing drugs are more difficult to detect
than others. Elevated levels of EPO, for instance, do not remain in
the blood for long
The Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) is the primary
anti-doping authority in Australia and, as such, is responsible for
testing athletes for banned substances.
Although there is limited statistical evidence on how widespread
doping is, athletes and coaches stress that most competitors do not
take drugs. Nonetheless, drug testing is becoming an increasingly
integral part of sports competitions.
Use of Technology
Oscar Pistorius of South Africa was born
without a fibula bone in his legs resulting
in both legs being amputated below the
knee
Is technology going too far???
Training innovation
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New training innovations develop every year, with what is regarded
as the latest innovation becoming outdated in a very short period of
time.
Coaches research, or in the case of elite athletes, have support staff
to investigate the latest training methods and vices to improve
athletic performance in power, distance and accuracy, and to
prevent injury or aid in rehabilitation.
much of the research done by the AIS is cutting-edge, and designed
to give Australian athletes the best chance at international success,
and so is not made available.
Some examples of innovative training aids to improve performance
include:
clothing, compression garments, playing surfaces, testing
procedures, simulated competition environments, equipment,
computerised video analysis
lactate threshold testing
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Lactate thresholds testing is an innovative method used to
measure lactate levels during training by sport scientists, coaches
and athletes to accurately determine heart rate training zones and
recovery. Lactate is a metabolic product that can be measured by
taking a drop of blood at a fingertip the same way diabetics monitor
their blood sugar level.
The blood lactate level increases with exercise intensity and shows
clearly the transition from aerobic to anaerobic activity. The ability
of the muscles to reach a peak performance during an athletic event
requires that the energy systems providing energy be ‘fine tuned’ or
‘balanced’ properly so that the athlete can generate the highest
amount of energy per unit of time during a race.
biomechanical analysis
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Biomechanical analysis is another innovative method used to
improve an athlete’s performance. For example, walking, running,
throwing, pitching, hitting, kicking, diving and golf swing mechanics
can be compared to normative data in order to pinpoint flaws in the
motion; and so performance improvements can then be based on
scientific evidence.
Biomechanical analysis is valuable in the prevention of injuries. Data
regarding joint stresses incurred during sport-specific movements,
knowledge of joint mechanics and the magnitudes and rates of joint
loads, provide sports medicine practitioners with the information
necessary to prescribe injury prevention and rehabilitation
programs.
All biomechanical evaluations should be completed with two goals in
mind:
1. improve performance and
2. reduce the chance of injury.
Equipment advances
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One of the most controversial
advances is that of the Speedo LZR
Pulse™ swimsuit. At the beginning of
2008, the suit was worn for 9 out of 9
world records broken in the swimming
pool between Jan – March of that year
Characteristics of the suit that
improves performance include:
* constructed water repellent material
reducing drag by 5% and increasing
efficiency
* tighter, corset-like midsection
reported to reduce fatigue at the end
of races and improve body shape
* seamless, consisting of special
panels of the repellent material further
reducing drag.
golf ball
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manufacturers have sought to create
superior golf balls by varying both the
materials and the patterns and
combinations on the surface.
as computer technologies and models are
developed, manufacturing companies can
develop new golf balls with new patterns,
accompanied by new marketing campaigns
Callaway Golf replaced traditional dimples
with a hexagonal dimple pattern on their
golf balls, which they claim further reduces
drag for longer, more efficient ball flight.