Chapter 6: Language and its effects on the
reader
• Part 3 Discovering Meaning: The
Importance of Language
Chapter 6: Language and its effects on
the reader
In this chapter, we will be concerned with
language in prose writing—with words and the
effect the writer intends them to have on us.
Chapter 6: Language and its effects on
the reader
Chapter objectives:
Denotation
and connotation
Figurative
language (metaphors, similes,
and personification)
Language
misused and abused
Denotation and Connotation
Much of our pleasure in
reading derives from
savoring the emotional
associations such efforts
afford us.
Denotation and Connotation
Word choice, or diction
Some words are meant to
arouse positive feelings, some
are meant to be neutral or
literal, while others are meant
to convey a negative
impression.
Denotation and Connotation
Two elements in word choice:
• Denotation:
• Connotation:
The literal or
The cluster of suggestions,
explicit meaning
ideas, or emotional
of a word; often
associations a word
called the
conjures up.
dictionary
To understand the
definition.
connotation of a word,
extensive reading is
required and a willingness
to consult the dictionary
when a word is not
understood.
Denotation and Connotation
If we pay only attention to the denotation of words,
our understanding is limited to the surface meaning.
Connotation extends the meaning beyond the
surface which helps us to see more in what we
read—the implications and association beyond the
merely literal.
Denotation and Connotation
Connotation and Synonyms
Words may appear to be
synonyms but actually are not.
Denotation and Connotation
Go to Practice Exercise 2 on p. 191
Study the cartoon found on the page.
Explain in your own words the humor of the
cartoon. Does the humor rely on a problem
with denotation or with connotation?
Denotation and Connotation
Possible response to Practice Exercise 2 on
p. 191
The woman who is speaking has a very
different interpretation of what the word
saving denotes. The newspaper headline
refers to accumulating savings (savings
accounts, investments, putting money aside),
whereas the woman thinks that saving means
buying shoes on sale.
Denotation and Connotation
Connotation and Levels of Language
Levels of language also
influence connotation.
Denotation and Connotation
Connotative Restrictions and the Importance of
Context
Comprehension suffers when
the reader perceives a different
meaning to the word.
Thus, personal interpretation
is one problem with
connotation.
Denotation and Connotation
Connotative Restrictions and the Importance of
Context
Often, students consult a
thesaurus when writing summaries
or other assignments.
A thesaurus treats all synonyms
as if they were interchangeable,
with equal denotative and
connotative values
Denotation and Connotation
Connotative Restrictions and the Importance of
Context
Often, connotative values of
words are restricted to specific
contexts.
Being able to choose the right
word depends on understanding
the context of the way the word is
used.
Denotation and Connotation
Go to Practice Exercise 3 on p. 193
In your own words, explain the connotative
restrictions in these three words.
Specifically, to what kind of person (age and
gender, for example), do these words usually
refer to? Consult an unabridged dictionary if
necessary.
spry
debonair
demure
Denotation and Connotation
spry
This word, meaning “unexpected speed
and energy of motion,” usually refers to
old people or animals.
debonair
Meaning “handsome, suave, and worldly,”
this word is associated with an adult man.
demure
This word has a positive connotation and
means modest and reserved in manner and
behavior; it is restricted to a young girl or
to a young woman.
Denotation and Connotation
Connotative Restrictions
In addition to the positive or negative
“charge” that words can convey, some
words in English are restricted to
describe a particular group.
Words are powerful and through
experience and practice, the word
bank increases for the reader.
Denotation and Connotation
How Denotation and Connotation Work Together
When examining a passage for
denotative and connotative words, look
first at the major words: nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs.
Nouns are necessary to identify the
thing or person or idea being talked
about.
Connotative words are apt to be
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
Denotation and Connotation
Connotation in Fiction
In fiction, a writer may use
descriptive details that are designed
to evoke in the reader a particular
emotional response to the
characters.
These details help you both to
visualize and assess the character.
Denotation and Connotation
See p. 196 the “Critical Thinking Exercise”
What does the word crusade mean to
Muslims?
What does it connote to Westerners?
Figurative Language
The use of a figure of speech refers
to the use of language not in its
literal sense, but in a metaphorical
or imaginative way.
Figures of speech are common in
poetry but are also used to employ
immediacy or drama to writing or to
create a mental image, to establish a
mood, or to clarify a difficult concept.
Figurative Language
Metaphors
A direct and imaginative
comparison
Similes
An imaginative comparison
using “like” or “as”
Personification A comparison in which
something nonliving is
described as if it were
human
Figurative Language
Metaphors and similes both
represent imaginative comparisons
between two essentially unlike things.
A metaphor refers to a direct comparison, in
which a particular quality or characteristic of
one thing (the figurative) is transferred to
another (the literal).
To analyze a metaphor, you need first to
identify the literal subject. Then, to identify
what the literal subject is compared to. It
reinforces the idea that is being described.
Figurative Language
Metaphors and similes both
represent imaginative comparisons
between two essentially unlike things.
A simile is an imaginative comparison
stated indirectly, usually with words “like,”
“as,” “as though,” “as if,” and occasionally
“seem.”
The metaphor is considered to be stronger
than the simile because it is directly
understood than to be inferred.
Figurative Language
Figurative Language and the
Imagination
Figures of speech serve to enhance the
reading experience. Writers used their
imagination to extend the experience
through the reader’s mind.
Figurative Language
Figurative Language and Inferences
When the writer only suggests the
comparison, the reader has to infer what is
meant by the comparison.
Figurative Language
The most common uses of Metaphors and
Similes:

to provide a visual image

to establish a mood or situation

to reinforce an observation

to clarify a difficult scientific
concept

to persuade or convince
Figurative Language
Personification
Something inanimate or
nonhuman is given human
attributes or feelings.
Figurative Language
Go to p. 203 and do Practice Exercise 6.
Doing this exercise and the next two (Exs. 7
and 8) will require some analysis. Use paper
to note your ideas.
First, decide whether the excerpt
represents a simile, a metaphor, or
personification.
Then, decide what the literal subject is
and what it is metaphorically being
compared to.
Finally, briefly explain the meaning.
Figurative Language
Answers to p. 203, Practice Exercise 6.
1.
2.
3.
First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or
personification.
Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being
compared to.
Finally, briefly explain the meaning.
1. Metaphor
The butterflies were small and colorful
and filled the air.
2. Metaphor
The visual figure “ribbon” refers to the
river; it complements and extends the
adjective “slender” and emphasizes its
narrowness.
Figurative Language
3. Simile
The students displayed little energy in
the hot classroom.
4. Simile
The woman’s life is narrow and limiting;
she is trapped.
5. Personification
Regret is compared to an insistent and
cold woman.
Figurative Language
6. Metaphor
Ultima’s eyes are keen, like those of an
owl, a bird known for its keen ability to
spot prey from afar.
7. Simile
This figure of speech reinforces the way
gamblers attach themselves to slot
machines for hours at a time.
8. Simile
The marauders left nothing after they
plundered the countryside.
Figurative Language
Go to p. 204 and do Practice Exercise 7.
1.
2.
3.
First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or
personification or more than one figure of speech.
Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being
compared to.
Finally, briefly explain the meaning.
Figurative Language
Answers to p. 204, Practice Exercise 7.
1.
2.
3.
First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or
personification or more than one figure of speech.
Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being
compared to.
Finally, briefly explain the meaning.
1. Metaphors
“Frosty” and “steely” suggest that Miss
Emily was a coldly stern woman.
2. Metaphor
America is compared to a large, friendly
dog. The nation is clumsy in foreign
affairs but also displays good humor and
desire to be liked.
Figurative Language
3. Metaphor
The huge influx of immigrants coming
into Paterson couldn’t be stopped.
4. Similes
Her skin is tight, and her eyes are
small, piercing, and cold.
5. Simile
Just when the prisoner thinks he has
survived one danger, an even bigger
one presents itself.
Figurative Language
6. Simile
Walking in long skirts in the snow was
awkward and clumsy, like trying to walk
while wearing a bedspread.
7. Metaphors
Sean and Lauren’s marriage is
shattered and can’t be put back
together. Lauren’s articulateness is
beyond what Sean can comprehend.
Figurative Language
Go to p. 206 and do Practice Exercise 8.
1.
2.
3.
First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or
personification or more than one figure of speech.
Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being
compared to.
Finally, briefly explain the meaning.
Figurative Language
Answers to p. 206, Practice Exercise 8.
1.
2.
3.
First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or
personification or more than one figure of speech.
Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being
compared to.
Finally, briefly explain the meaning.
1. Metaphors
The references to a football field, a
desktop, and a tennis court describe
the fact pace at which Louisiana
wetlands are disappearing and help
the reader visualize the loss.
Figurative Language
2. Simile
The narrator’s feelings of repugnance
and guilt toward her lover are minimal.
3. Personification
Hockey originated in Canada as a
working class sport, but when it moved
to the United States and tried to be
accepted on the same level as
baseball, it failed.
Figurative Language
4. Metaphor
Funnel clouds and elephants’ trunks
are the same shape and the same
color of gray. Both suck everything up
before moving on.
5. Metaphors
The man who doesn’t read is isolated
by his inability to learn about anything
outside his immediate world.
Figurative Language
6. Simile
Marco’s alienation is causing him everpresent pain.
Metaphor
Having skipped bail, Marco has
compounded his problems, which are
now impossible to surmount.
7. Metaphor
Blacks and whites must work together
for the common good.
Connotation and Our Perception of the
Issues
In this portion of Ch. 6, you will read a
discussion of how the media and politicians
use connotative language to slant the truth
and to shape our perceptions.
Government officials and politicians are
especially guilty of providing us with the
very best by putting the best spin on their
proposals or on world events.
Connotation and Our Perception of the
Issues
How?
Connotation and Our Perception of the
Issues
We become
immune to
linguistic abuse.
Connotation and Our Perception of the
Issues
How Word Choice Influences Our
Perceptions—the Media
Problems with connotation can
cause even the most professional
and dedicated journalist to
stumble.
Connotation and Our Perception of the
Issues
Result?
Language misused and abused
Clever language may consist of the following manipulative
language:
Clichés
Tired, overused expressions
Code words
Secret words or phrases that mean something
special to insiders but something different to
outsiders
Jargon
The specialized language used by a particular group
Euphemisms
Inoffensive language used as a substitute for
possibly offensive terms
Politically correct
language
Language that attempts to avoid insensitivity
related to diversity, historical injustices, racism, etc.
Sneer words
Words with strong negative, derogatory
connotations
Doublespeak
Language used to twist, to deceive, or to
misrepresent the truth
Obfuscating
language
Language that is unnecessarily complicated, vague,
or confusing, used to misrepresent the truth.
Language misused and abused
Clichés (the lazy writer)
tired, overused expressions
Good writers avoid clichés
because these fossilized
expressions long ago lost their
effectiveness; many no longer
make sense.
Language misused and abused
Clichés – commonly used
As fresh as a daisy
To come to a grinding
halt
As rich as Croesus
To be up in arms
As smart as a whip
As cool as a cucumber
A labor of love
A chip off the old block
As clear as mud
A peaches-and-cream
complexion
To be slower than
molasses in January
To leave no stone
unturned
Language misused and abused
Clichés – contemporary
To think outside of the box
Outpouring of support
At the end of the day
It’s not rocket science
To be (or not to be) a happy A level playing field
camper
Wealth of experience
To tweak
Bells and whistles
Cut and run (used by those who
support an end to US forces
being deployed in Iraq and
generally thought to mean
cowardice)
Language misused and abused
Code Words
Secret words or phrases that
mean one thing to those in the
know—to insiders—and
something different to those on
the outside.
Language misused and abused
Jargon
Specialized language members
of a particular trade, group, or
profession use. It is usually
used to make the writer or
speaker sound more intelligent
or learnèd than if he or she
used ordinary language.
Language misused and abused
Jargon
Phishing
Unlawful attempts to gain access to
confidential information by sending fake
emails asking for Social Security numbers,
passwords, etc.
Script kiddies
Hackers, who, in the past, engaged in online
pranks, trying to hack into people’s computer
systems, typically done for thrills and bragging
rights
Malware
Software developed by cyberthieves, used to
infect PCs and websites
Bot herders
Criminals who break into computers and turn
them into zombies, using them to automate
identity theft, all without the owner’s
knowledge
Language misused and abused
Jargon
Usually inoffensive and not meant
to hookwink. Jargon may be
useful which provides a
shorthand between people who
are fluent in the terminology and
the subject.
Language misused and abused
Jargon
Jargon may be pretentious,
obscure, and impossible to read.
And yes, jargon can be employed
to mislead.
Language misused and abused
Euphemisms

an inoffensive word or phrase
substituted for what might be a more
offensive (or sometimes humdrum)
one.
 used to soften our perception of
unpleasant events, to change our
beliefs, or perhaps even to cover up
wrongdoing.
Language misused and abused
Go to p. 215 and do Practice
Exercise 10.
Decide whether each of the
following passages represents a
cliché, code word or phrase, jargon,
or euphemism. (Try to do it without
simply looking at the answers. Test
yourself, first.)
Language misused and abused
Answers to p. 215, Practice
Exercise 10.
Decide whether each of the
following passages represents a
cliché, code word or phrase, jargon,
or euphemism. (Try to do it without
simply looking at the answers. Test
yourself, first.)
Language misused and abused
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Code phrase
Euphemism
Cliché
Jargon
Clichés
Code word + euphemism for “fat”
Euphemisms
Educational jargon
Language misused and abused
Politically Correct Language
Political correctness grew out of the
increased sensitivity to diversity in
the country in the 1980s by liberals
who wanted the language of words
and phrases to no longer identify
people’s differences.
semantic labels for dealing with race,
gender, and people considered
“disadvantaged
Language misused and abused
Politically Correct Language
Conventional
Term
Preferred PC Term
Members of
minority groups
People of color, emergent groups,
traditionally underrepresented, or members
of the world’s majorities
Mankind
Humanity or humankind
Handicapped
Physically challenged or differently abled
Prostitute
Sex worker
Old person
Mature person, senior, or chronologically
gifted
Language misused and abused
Politically Correct Language
Conventional
Term
Preferred PC Term
Fat person
Person of size, differently sized person
Fireman,
policeman
Firefighter, police officer
Language misused and abused
Sneer Words
A writer can shape our perception
of events, making things seem less
bad than they actually are, with
euphemism.
On the other hand, a writer can
intensify an already bad situation or
cast doubt on an idea by using
sneer words.
words with strong negative connotations
suggesting derision and scorn
Language misused and abused
Political Correct Language
semantic labels for dealing with race,
gender, and people considered
“disadvantaged”
Sneer Words
words with strong negative
connotations suggesting derision
and scorn
Language misused and abused
Sneer Words
Agenda
Term used to describe the thinking of a group
one dislikes (i.e., the gay-rights agenda, the
Christian agenda, the liberal agenda, etc.
Flyover
states
The states located between the East and West
coasts; the term implies that they don’t have much
influence on American culture.
So-called
A term used to disparage whatever noun it
precedes. Creationists often call scientists who
support evolution “so-called scientists” to cast
doubt on their authority.
Language misused and abused
Doublespeak
Coined by George Orwell in his 1984
novel meaning to doublethink and
newspeak.
Doublespeak may or may not involve
euphemism and is usually
meaningless.
A variation of doublespeak is waffling.
Language misused and abused
Doublespeak
Doublespeak is language that pretends to
communicate but really doesn’t. It is
language that makes the bad seem good,
the negative appear positive, the unpleasant
appear attractive or at least tolerable.
Doublespeak is language that avoids or
shifts responsibility, language that is at
variance with its real or purported meaning.
-William D. Lutz
Language misused and abused
Doublespeak
Language that is “grossly deceptive, evasive,
euphemistic, confusing or self-contradictory”
with the potential for “pernicious social or
political consequences.”
-William D. Lutz
A variation of doublespeak is waffling.
A political candidate’s views on current issues which
undergo constant shifts which makes it difficult to
see what he or she really stands for.
Language misused and abused
Doublespeak
Military Doublespeak “Pentagonese”
Frame-supported tension
structure
Defense Department term for a
tent
Manually powered fastenerdriving impact device
Defense Department term for a
hammer
Airborne sanitation
A bombing attack
Area denial weapons
Cluster bombs (bombs that carry
bomblets that result in civilian
deaths
Collateral damage
The killing of innocent civilians,
used first in Kosovo and later in
Iraq
Language misused and abused
Miscellaneous Examples
Retrievable storage site
A nuclear fuel dump
Uncontrolled contact with
the ground
A safety expert’s term for an
airplane crash
Runway incursion
The FAA’s term for planes and
airport vehicles that stray off
course and cause a hazard or
collision
Water landing
The term airlines use to describe
a crash in the ocean
Therapeutic misadventure
The medical profession’s term
for a doctor’s incompetence that
results in a patient’s death
Negative employee
retention
Corporate doublespeak for
employee layoffs
Language misused and abused
Obfuscating Language
To make something difficult to
understand.
It may be complicated, vague, or
confusing.
It leads to uncertainty,
misinterpretation, or both.
Go to p. 219, Practice Exercise 11
Decide whether each of the following
passages represents politically correct
language, sneer words, doublespeak, or
obfuscating language. Don’t go to the
answers until you’ve tested yourself and have
made a guess for each answer.
Answers to p. 219, Practice Exercise 11
1. Obfuscating language; also doublespeak
2. Doublespeak/waffling
3. Doublespeak
4. Sneer words
5. Doublespeak
6. Doublespeak (also corporate jargon)
7. Politically correct language
8. Doublespeak
9. Doublespeak
10. Politically correct language
Now, go back and review.
• This chapter is filled with much complex
information.
• Study it carefully.
• Test yourself on the chapter exercises. If
you are having trouble, review.
• When you feel comfortable knowing the
information contained in the chapter, go to
the chapter assignment.
• Next, do the extra credit for further
reinforcement.