THE
REVOLUTIONS
OF 1848
INTRODUCTION
• Almost fifty revolutions occurred in this
year. In the end, they were all put down
and/or contained. Causes varied across
the Continent and included food
shortages, a depression in commerce and
industry, widespread unemployment,
nationalism, discontent among the working
classes, and the desire for more political
power by the middle class political liberals.
CENTERS OF
REVOLUTION IN
1848–1849 The
revolution that
toppled
the July monarchy in
Paris in 1848 soon
spread to Austria and
many of the
German and Italian
states. Yet by the end
of 1849, most of
these uprisings had
been suppressed.
FRANCE
• The refusal of King Louis
Philippe and his chief
minister, Guizot, to bring
about electoral reform
sparked a revolt in Paris
on February 22, 1848.
Louis Philippe fled to
England after the revolt.
FRANCE
During the February days of the French Revolution of 1848, crowds in Paris
burned the throne of Louis Philippe.
FRANCE
• A. Viva la Republic!: The revolt led to the
establishment of a provisional republic that
granted universal male suffrage. It was
led by poet, Alphonse de Lamartine.
FRANCE
• B. Strange Bedfellows: The
revolutionary coalition could
not agree on a common
program. A split occurred
between the moderate,
liberal republicans
represented by Lamartine
and the socialist republicans,
led by Louis Blanc who
wanted national workshops
for the unemployed.
FRANCE
• 1. National Workshops were a compromise
between the socialists’ demand for work for all
and the moderates’ determination to provide
only temporary relief for the massive
unemployment.
• 2. Conflict between classes resulted from a fear
of socialism. The workers invaded the
Constituent Assembly and tried to proclaim a
new revolutionary government.
• 3. The Assembly dissolved the workshops in
May which led to a violent uprising – the June
Days
FRANCE
• Louis Napoleon: Class
warfare resulted in the
election of this strongman
(nephew of Napoleon I) to
the presidency in 1848.
On December 1851 he
dissolved the French
Parliament and one year
later declared himself sole
ruler as Emperor
Napoleon III.
THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
• A. French Inspiration: Revolution in
France resulted in popular upheaval
throughout central Europe.
• B. Vienna: Inspired by the Magyar
nationalist, Louis Kossuth, beginning on
March 13, 1848, students and
workingmen engaged in riots and
invaded the imperial palace. The army
failed to contain the disturbances. The
government, fearful that urban unrest
would cause an uprising of the serfs in
the countryside, abolished serfdom.
Metternich resigned and fled in disguise
to England.
THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
• C. Hungary
– 1. Led by Louis Kossuth, the
Hungarians (Magyars)
demanded national
autonomy, civil liberties, and
universal suffrage.
– 2. Emperor Ferdinand I
promised reforms and a
liberal constitution. Serfdom
was abolished by the end of
March, 1848
THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
– 3. The revolution lost steam
due to conflict among different
nationalities (Hungarians vs.
Croats, Serbs, Romanians;
Czechs vs. Germans) which
was encouraged by the
Austrian monarchy. The
leaders of the revolution wanted
to restructure the country
according to ethnic language
and culture.
THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
– 4. The alliance of the
working and middle
classes collapsed. The
conservative
aristocrats crushed the
revolution.
– 5. Francis Joseph was
crowned emperor in
1848.
– 6. The Russian army
helped to defeat the
Hungarians.
THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
• D. Bohemia: In April, 1848 an
uprising broke out in Prague.
Czech nationalists met at an
all-Slav congress. They
called for a constituent
assembly for Bohemia. They
demanded that the Czech
language be used along with
German in schools and
government offices. In June,
1848 imperial troops
bombarded Prague and
crushed the Czech rebellion.
ITALY TO 1850: A BATTLE
GROUND FOR GREAT POWERS
• Metternich said Italy was not
a nation, but a
“geographical expression”.
• A. Italy prior to 1860 was
divided; much of it was
under the control of Austria
and the pope.
• B. Between 1815 and 1848,
the goal of unification began
to appeal to Italians
ITALY TO 1850: A BATTLE
GROUND FOR GREAT POWERS
• C. Three Approaches to
Unification: Risorgimento –
resurgence
– 1. Guiseppi Mazzini – had been a
member of the secret Carbonari.
He founded the Young Italy
Movement to promote unification.
Goal to found a democratic
republic based on universal
suffrage. 1848 revolutions failed
when rebels seized the papacy
angering European Catholics and
prompting Napoleon III to send in a
French army to put down the
rebels. Mazzini went into exile.
ITALY TO 1850: A BATTLE
GROUND FOR GREAT POWERS
– 2. Papal Power
• Vincenzo Gioberti (philosopher and
statesman): supported movement for a
unified Italian state centered on the
Papacy. Wanted federation of existing
states under the presidency of the pope
• Pius IX: Had supported unification in
1848 but backed away from the idea after
his seizure by rebels and in subsequent
years he opposed nationalism and other
modern ideas. In 1864 his paper
Syllabus of Errors denounced
rationalism, socialism, separation of
church and state, and religious liberty.
ITALY TO 1850: A BATTLE
GROUND FOR GREAT POWERS
– 3. Sardinia:
• Prince Charles Albert of SardiniaPiedmont (1831-1849) fought
against Austrian control, gave his
people a constitution allowing civil
liberties and a parliamentary
government with control over
taxed; but both the war of
liberation and the revolutionary
republics set up in Rome, Venice,
and Tuscany were crushed by
Austria in 1849, aided by the
French troops. The dream of a
united Italy was shattered although
Sardinia kept its independence.
Charles Albert abdicated in favor
of his son.
• Victor Emmanuel II: retained the
Sardinian constitution.
PRUSSIA
• A. Post Congress of Vienna: the Congress of
Vienna had established the German
Confederation. Liberal and nationalist
movements were circumscribed by the 1819
Carlsbad Decrees (members of the German
Confederation were required to root out
subversive ideas in their universities and
newspapers; a permanent committee of spies
was established to investigate and punish any
liberal or radical organizations.) France and
Russia encouraged rivalries among the German
States to prevent the emergence of a strong,
united nation on their borders. Prussia, under the
Hohenzollerns, took the lead in the unification
process in the German states.
PRUSSIA
PRUSSIA
• B. Supporters of Unification
– 1. Middle Class Aspirations: wish to create a unified, liberal
Germany.
– 2. Working Class Aspirations: inspired by events in France: they
demanded and received a liberal constitution. However, their
demands for suffrage and socialist reforms incited fear among
the aristocracy.
– 3. Frankfurt National Assembly(1848): composed of middle class
liberals who began writing a constitution for a unified Germany.
– 4. War with Denmark: Prussia and Denmark were fighting over
the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. The Frankfurt
Assembly was rejected by the newly-elected Frederick William
IV. This attempt at German liberalism had failed
PRUSSIA
• C. a Look Backward
– 1640-1713 Frederick
William, the Great Elector
– 1713-1740 Frederick
William I
– 1740-1786 Frederick II
(the Great)
– 1786-1797 Frederick
William II
– 1797-1840 Frederick
William III
PRUSSIA
• D. Frederick William IV (18401861) Son of Frederick William
III, he began his reign by
granting minor reforms and
promising radical changes. He
wanted to unify Germany “from
above”. He opposed the
popular movement of 1848, but
was forced to grant a
representative parliament in
1850. In 1857, afflicted with
insanity, he resigned the
administration to his brother.
PRUSSIA
• E. Germany Before
Bismarck: In the aftermath
of 1848, the German states
were locked in a political
stalemate. Prussian Junkers
had pressed for removal of
internal tariffs. They
organized the Zollverein
(1834), a customs union
which by 1844 included
most of the German States
but excluded Austria. It
became a crucial factor in
the Austro-Prussian rivalry
for power.