Ancient Civilizations Project:
China
China - Geography
Post-Neolithic Dynasties in China
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Shang Dynasty (1523-1028 BCE)
Zhou Dynasty (1027-256 BCE)
Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE)
Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE)
Six Dynasties (220-586)
Sui Dynasty (581-618)
T’ang Dynasty (618-906)
Five Dynasties (907-960)
Song Dynasty (960-1279)
Yuan (1280-1365) – Mongol rule
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) – Manchu rule
Neolithic China (3000-1500 BCE)
The Shang Dynasty (1523-1028 BCE)
The Zhou Dynasty
(1045 – 221 BCE)
Qin Dynasty
(221 – 206 BCE)
Han Dynasty
(206 BCE – 220 CE)
Sui Dynasty
(581-618)
T’ang Dynasty
(618-906)
Sung Dynasty
(960-1279)
Yuan Dynasty (Mongol) 1280-1365
Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644)
Qing Dynasty
(1644-1912)
Origins – Chinese Civilization
•
Chinese civilization is the oldest continuous, homogenous major
culture in the world today.
•
Historians have usually dated the beginning of Chinese civilization to
the establishment of the Xia dynasty more than 4,000 years ago.
•
Chinese civilization was the last of the great ancient civilizations to
fully flower. By the time the Shang (1523-1028 BCE) began to
emerge, societies in Mesopotamia and the Nile River Valley were
advanced civilizations.
•
The earliest Chinese civilization was a river valley civilization like
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India.
•
Chinese civilization was founded on the Huang He (Yellow) River,
the second largest river in China after the Yangtze.
Early Chinese Civilization:
The Huang He River
Part I. Belief / Value System
Belief Systems – China:
Religions and Philosophies
•
During the Shang, people began to believe in one god, Shang Di,
who presided over the forces of nature.
- As time went on, this concept of an “anthropomorphic” god
evolved into the more impersonal symbol of the universe
known as Heaven (Tian).
•
Two elements of “religious” worship in China:
- ancestor worship
- worship of the spirits of nature
•
Unlike the West, Chinese “priests” did not enjoy a position of power
in society.
Belief Systems – China:
Religions and Philosophies
•
In China, unlike the West, there is no creation myth, no source of
divine law outside of nature.
- Nature contributed to divine ideas
- Moral law was represented by human authority: the sage
kings, the Zhou founders, and Confucius.
•
Religion has a practical rather than a mystical concern.
•
Philosophy has to do primarily with ethical conduct in actual life, not
with abstract questions as in the West. Exceptions:
- Buddhism from India
- Daoism
Belief Systems – China:
Religions and Philosophies
•
Most of China’s enduring religions / philosophies
emerged by the end of the Zhou Dynasty known as the
“Hundred schools” of ancient philosophy.
Belief Systems – China:
Religions and Philosophies
•
One of the earliest ideas was that the universe was divided into two
forces – Liang Yi:
-
•
good and evil
light and dark
male and female
(yin) and (yang)
Life was a process of interaction between these opposing forces.
Harmonious life is when there is a unity of opposites.
Confucianism
Confucianism / K’ung Fu-tzu (551-479 BCE)
•
Wanted to find work as a political adviser in one of China’s principalities
but never found a patron.
•
His philosophy is found in the Analects in the form of conversations with
his disciples
•
There is no evidence that Confucius wrote anything at all (like Buddha,
Socrates and Jesus)
•
His philosophy was political and ethical. Not very concerned with the
cosmos.
•
Key principles:
- to love others
- to honor one’s parents (ancestor worship & filial piety)
- to do what is right rather than what is advantageous
- to lead by example
- to rule by moral example and not by force
Confucianism
Confucius / K’ung Fu-tzu (551-479 BCE)
Ancestor Worship & Filial Piety
•
Interconnected and part of the same concept – respect for elders =
one of the key components of Chinese culture.
•
Ancestor worship – Chinese keep a small shrine in their homes with
tablets commemorating all the deceased members of their family.
- They also visit the cemeteries during the warmer months to
visit the deceased and clean the graves.
Confucianism
Confucius / K’ung Fu-tzu (551-479 BCE)
Filial Piety - Respect for one's parents
•
For Confucius, it is the starting point of humane behavior.
•
It is part of everyone’s Dao (Way).
•
Filial Piety is at the root of the “Six Relationships,” the basis for all
social connections between people:
Belief Systems – China:
“The Six Relationships”
Parents
Husband Elder
Brother
Children Wife
Ruler
Younger Subject
Brother
Teacher
Friend
Student
Friend
Belief Systems – China:
“The Six Relationships”
•
In each relationship, the superior member has the duty
of benevolence and care for the subordinate member.
•
The subordinate member has the duty of obedience.
•
The only equal relationship is between friends, unless
one is older than the other.
•
Unlike in India, where social relations are absolute (caste
and karma determine everything) obedience in China
DEPENDS on the fulfillment of the superior person’s duty.
Confucianism and Filial Piety
•
What are some problems that may
result from too much filial piety?
•
Would you say that Confucianism is a
“conservative,” “liberal,” or “radical” belief
system?
Confucianism
Confucianism / K’ung Fu-tzu
•
The key to proper, ethical behavior is for everyone to act according to their
Dao (Way).
- Even the ruler had his own Dao and if he ignored it he would lose
his mandate from heaven to rule.
- A ruler that had to resort to force to subdue his population has
already failed in his duty.
•
Two main elements of the Dao:
- all individuals had to subordinate their personal interests and
aspirations to the broader need of the family and the community.
- individuals must possess the idea of “humanity” –
compassion and empathy for others / “Do NOT do unto others what
you WOULD NOT wish do to yourself.”
Confucianism
Confucius / K’ung Fu-tzu
•
Confucius believed government should be open to all men of
superior quality and not limited to those of noble birth.
- This idea was not accepted immediately but later influenced
China’s introduction of the civil service exam for government
officials.
•
An important disciple of Confucius was Mencius (370—290 BCE).
- Believed humans were good by nature
- Ruler’s duty was to rule with compassion.
Confucianism
•
Confucianism became the ruling philosophy first during the Han
Dynasty and later during the:
- T’ang
- Sung
- Yuan (even though the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan was
Buddhist)
- Ming
- Qing
•
The Sui Dynasty made Buddhism and Daoism the ruling
philosophies, expanding Buddhist monasteries and promoting
Buddhist monks to key positions as political advisers.
Confucius and Mencius
Confucius and Socrates
•
Both lived within a century of each other:
- Confucius (551 – 479 BCE)
- Socrates (470 – 399 BCE)
•
Both were philosophers who were mainly concerned with
questions of moral behavior / both were “consultants” of better,
ethical behavior
•
Both had an enormous influence on their societies
- Confucius = Eastern Civilization
- Socrates = Western Civilization
•
Neither left their thoughts in writing but their ideas were spread
by their disciples
Belief Systems – China:
Religions and Philosophies
Legalism
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Han Feizi – founder of the Legalist school of thought.
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Disputed Confucius and Mencius’ view that humans are naturally
inclined towards good.
•
Legalists believed that people are by nature evil and need to be
forced to do good by harsh laws and stiff punishments.
•
Only a strong ruler could create an orderly society / Only firm action
by the state could bring about social order.
Belief Systems – China:
Legalism in Practice
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Shi Huangdi, leader of the Qin Dynasty made Legalism the first
“ruling ideology” in China’s history.
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Created an authoritarian system:
- non-Legalist political philosophies (including
Confucianism) were banned
- books offering views contrary to Legalist principles were
burned
- all disagreements with the government was made a capital
crime
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The dynasty was overthrown because it was too oppressive
Dynastic Rule and Structure of
Government
•
Shi Huangdi centralized political power in his hands. His way of
ruling became a model for future Chinese dynasties. He did this
by:
- Appointing officials at the provincial and county level / they
did not inherit their positions like under the Zhou
- Unified the system of weights and measures
- Standardized the money system & the alphabet
- Constructed a system of roads all over the empire
Belief Systems – China:
Legalism in Practice
•
People were conscripted for mandatory state
projects:
Irrigation projects
Construction of sections of the Great
Wall
Legalist Influence on China’s
Leaders
Part II. Government and Politics
Dynastic Rule and Structure of
Government
•
Since the Shang, China has been ruled by
hereditary dynasties led by Emperors.
•
The Zhou overthrew the Shang an justified this
by the theory of the “Mandate of Heaven,” the
explanation used by all subsequent ruling
dynasties of China.
Causes of Dynasties to Fall
1.
Rivalries between different landed aristocratic clans
2.
Corrupt or weak emperors
3.
Crushing tax burden, especially on the peasants > peasant
rebellions
4.
Sharp economic inequality
5.
Constant “barbarian” attacks
6.
Oppressive, authoritarian rule
Dynastic Rule and Structure of
Government
•
Ever since the Shang, the country was divided into different levels
territories:
•
Beginning with the Shang, the country was divided into territories
governed by aristocratic chiefs that the Emperor appointed.
- He could depose each administrator as he pleased.
•
Under the T’ang, the country was divided into provinces, districts
and villages.
- The village level government was run by village elders.
- Handled local issues and tax collecting for the central
government.
- Most people had little involvement with government. If
they did, it was on the village level.
Dynastic Rule and Structure of
Government
1. Emperor
2. Grand Council
a. assisted by a secretariat and a chancellery
b. included representatives from all three authorities:
Civil
Military
Censorate
3. Department of State Affairs
a. composed of six ministries
- justice / military affairs / personnel / public works /
revenue / ritual
The Civil Service Exam
•
First given in 165 BCE during the Han dynasty, it was a way to provide well
educated and well trained government bureaucrats.
•
Civil Service Exams under the Han were based on Confucian political &
social ethics.
•
Theoretically, most males were eligible to take the exams except criminals
and merchants.
-During the Sung Dynasty, relatives of nobles serving in the imperial
court and eunuchs were also not allowed to take the exam. Still,
most that took it were landed nobles.
- In reality, most poor males could not afford to sacrifice work
time to study in the academy.
•
Academies were opened under the Han to prepare students for the exams.
The Civil Service Exam
•
Under the Sung Dynasty, the
examination system attained
the form it was to retain to the
end of the dynastic system:
- 3 levels of exams for
different government
positions
- Students complained the
exams were too difficult or
that it was all memorization
and irrelevant.
- Many brought cheat sheets
with them
The Civil Service Exam
•
The Qing (Manchu)
Dynasty (1644-1912)
tried to make the civil
service exam more
equitable by establishing
quotas for each major
ethnic group and
province.
The Civil Service Exam
•
With all its imperfections,
the exam:
- provided for more
efficient government
- more opportunity for
upward mobility
•
It was abolished just
before the Ming were
overthrown.
Part III. Social Classes
Landed Aristocracy
•
The elites throughout Chinese civilization until the 20th century.
- Played a dominant role in the political and
economic life of China.
- The best arable land was concentrated in their hands.
Peasants worked as tenant farmers for them.
•
Shi Huangdi tried to break their power by dividing their estates among the
peasants. (like Ivan the Terrible in Russia in the 16th century).
•
Most attempts by Chinese leaders to break the power of the landed
nobility by distributing the land to the poor ended in failure.
- Many revolts in China were caused by the issue of land distribution:
the large peasant population was chronically short of land while the
landed nobility never wanted its land confiscated and redistributed.
Peasantry
•
Unlike in the West, the peasantry in China did not occupy the lowest rung
of society.
•
Chinese peasants owned their own land since Shang period but were often
turned into tenant farmers when the landed aristocracy grabbed their
land.
•
Before the T’ang, many peasants were reduced to serfdom or slavery again
by aristocratic landowners.
•
For most of China’s history, the peasantry was crushed with a host of
different taxes. Also forced to work on public works:
- irrigation projects
- constructing the Great Wall
- military conscription
•
Chinese peasant rebellions were the largest and most violent of any
society.
Merchants
•
“The mind of a superior man dwells on righteousness;
the mind of a little man dwells on profit". - Confucius
•
Merchants were treated particularly poorly in comparison
to other societies.
- During the Zhou dynasty, they were considered
the property of the local lord and on occasion could
even be bought and sold like chattel.
- Qin rulers viewed them as parasites / private
commercial activities were severely restricted and
heavily taxed.
Merchants
•
During the Han dynasty, merchants were prohibited from
seeking political office, restricted to where they could
live, and generally viewed as parasites that do not add
value to Chinese society.
•
The T’ang and Song dynasties continued to restrict the
merchants.
Other Social Groups: Eunuchs
•
Shi Huangdi established a class of eunuchs who served
as personal attendants of the emperor and female
members of his family.
- Why? Since eunuchs could not have children, they
would not rise up against the emperor to sieze
power for his sons.
To restrict the influence of male courtiers.
•
Eunuchs became a standard fixture of the Chinese
imperial system.
Part IV. Economic Activity
Agriculture
•
For most of Chinese history, agriculture was the main
economic activity and the main source of production.
•
The predominance of agriculture even led the Ming
rulers to suspend forever overseas exploration.
•
When the Industrial Revolution developed in Europe,
China ignored it.
Commerce
•
From the days of the Qin, the state directed much trade
and manufacturing:
- weapons / operated shipyards, granaries, mines
- directed foreign trade with neighboring countries
•
China’s trade and prosperity grew greatly under the Han
dynasty.
•
The T’ang and Song dynasties relaxed the government
monopoly on long-distance trade and encouraged private
commerce.
Commerce
•
Trade and foreign contact increased under the T’ang and Yuan
dynasties.
- The Mongols controlled China under the Yuan / their empire
stretched to Europe and south into the Middle East.
•
The Ming rulers who replaced the Mongols at first strictly curtailed
foreign contacts until Muslim eunuch Zheng He was allowed to go
on 7 explorations from 1405-1432.
- Afterwards, all maritime expeditions were suspended
indefinitely.
- This marks the beginning of China’s stagnation and decline.
Part V. Cultural Achievements
Belief Systems
•
The period of the Zhou Dynasty produced many of
China’s most important philosophies:
- Confucianism
- Daoism
- Legalism
•
Influenced its Far Eastern neighbors in writing system,
literature, art, architecture.
Part VI. Technological
Achievements
Silk Industry
•
China was the first country in the ancient world to cultivate the
mulberry plant, raise silkworms, and produce silk items.
•
Silk production began during the Zhou dynasty but really took off
during the Han.
•
The manufacture & trade in silk was very lucrative.
- Used for clothing, quilts
•
After silkworms were smuggled out of China to the Byzantine
Empire, Emperor Justinian nationalized the silk trade in 542 CE.
The Silk Road
Agriculture – Iron Plow
•
Iron plows - developed
first in China during the
3rd BCE.
•
By the 1st century BCE,
the Chinese developed
moldboards that could
invert soil.
•
Europeans only
developed moldboards in
the late 10th century.
Agriculture - Harness
•
There is evidence that the
harness was first used in China
in the 1st century BCE, a
thousand years before it was
used in Europe.
•
The horse collar made it
possible for peasants to use
horses as work animals.
•
Horses were faster than oxen –
more agricultural output.
Canals
•
The world’s first transport
contour canal was
constructed in China in the 3rd
century BCE on the orders of
Shi Huangdi.
•
“The Magic Canal” (Lingqu)
•
Linked the Xiang and Li
Rivers.
•
The “Grand Canal,” begun in
330 BCE, was completed
during the Yuan dynasty
(1293).
•
Both canals are still in use in
China.
Bridges
•
The Chinese built the first
segmented arch bridge in
610 CE called the Anji
Bridge (Zhaozhou
Bridge). It is still
standing today.
Paper
•
Paper was invented by the
Chinese during the Han
dynasty.
•
From China, papermaking
moved to Korea, where
production of paper began as
early as the 5th century CE.
•
From Korea, papermaking was
brought to Japan by a
Buddhist monk.
Printing
•
Woodblock printing on paper
and silk was first developed in
China in the around the 7th
century CE.
•
Buddhist monks were
important in advancing this
technique.
•
The earliest printed text in the
world was a Buddhist scroll
which was discovered in
Korea between 704-751.
•
Moveable type was also
invented in China in the 11th
century.
Metalworking
•
During the T’ang dynasty, the
Chinese mastered the art of
manufacturing steel by mixing
cast and wrought iron.
•
They mixed the two in a blast
furnace, another Chinese
invention.
- made swords, sickles
and suits of armor.
•
By the 11th century, China
produced more than 35,000
tons of steel, seven centuries
before the Industrial
Revolution in England.
Gunpowder / Explosives
•
Gunpowder was invented by
the Chinese during the T’ang
dynasty and used primarily for
explosives.
•
It reached the West through
the Arabs in the 12th century.
Maritime - Compass
•
The invention of the compass
(Sung dynasty) and
improvements in shipbuilding
made the Chinese a maritime
power.
•
Trading along the Silk Road
was becoming hazardous – this
prompted China to seek
maritime trade routes.
•
Between the 12th-15th
centuries, Chinese ships
reached Kamchatka (Russia) in
the northeast Pacific to
Madagascar in the Indian
Ocean.
Part VII. Foreign Relations
Foreign Relations
•
Generally speaking, the Chinese did not believe they could learn or
benefit much from contacts with the outside world:
- meaning of the “Middle Kingdom”
- “The Great Wall” as a barrier
•
"Whilst his parent is alive the son may not take a distant voyage
abroad;. if he has to take such a voyage the destination must be
known.” - Confucius
•
Foreign trade expanded under the Han dynasty.
•
Overall, world trade declined with the collapse of the Han dynasty
and the Roman Empire (220 & 476 CE).
Foreign Relations
•
The Chinese have been reluctant to dilute the purity of
their culture with foreign innovations because:
- pride in their own considerable achievements
- their dominant position throughout Far Eastern
region
Relations with Asian Neighbors:
Japan
•
Although the Japanese were aware of China for centuries, they first
began noticing China’s might in the early 7th century CE.
- During the 7th century, the Japanese modeled their
government after China’s. / Japan failed to centralize its
government like China.
- Buddhism came from China in the 6th century CE.
•
710 – Japan’s capital city, Nara, then later Kyoto were designed to
emulate Tang China’s capital, Chang’an.
•
Instituted civil service exams for government bureaucrats however:
- exams restricted to those of noble birth
Relations with Asian Neighbors:
Japan
•
Foreign trade, mostly with China and Korea, began during the 11th
century CE.
•
Chinese influence on ancient Japan can also be seen in the
literature, art, especially during the 7th and 8th centuries.
•
Japan had no written language for recording their spoken language
so they adopted Chinese. Eventually the Japanese developed a
hybrid of Chinese characters with Japanese pronunciations.
•
Between the 8th and 12th century, most educated Japanese preferred
to speak Chinese.
Relations with Asian Neighbors:
Korea
•
No country in East Asia was more strongly influenced by the
Chinese model than Korea.
•
In 109 BCE, the northern part of the Korean peninsula came under
direct Chinese rule.
•
With the decline of the Han dynasty, local tribal leaders drove the
Chinese out but maintained China’s cultural influence.
•
3 Korean kingdoms emerged – all absorbed Chinese political and
cultural institutions.
- The Koguryo in the north was the most influenced by China.
- Buddhism was introduced in the late 4th century CE and the
first Confucian academy in Korea was established in
Pyongyang.
Relations with Asian Neighbors:
Korea
•
The Silla kingdom, located in the southeastern part of the
peninsula, was least influenced by China.
- It was the strongest of the three Korean kingdoms
- Forced the Chinese to withdraw from most of its
territory.
- Silla accepted tributary status with China under the Tang
dynasty.
•
Even as a unified state, the rulers of Silla tried to use Chinese
political institutions and ideology to form a centralized state but
faced strong resistance from powerful aristocratic families.
- Failure to centralize led to Silla’s collapse.
•
The new dynasty called Koryo adopted Chinese political
institutions in an effort to unify and centralize Korea.
China Under Foreign Rulers
•
Twice in its dynastic history China was under foreign
rule:
- Yuan dynasty – Mongols
- Qing dynasty – Manchus
•
The Mongols initially tried to rule China as their own
tribal society. Eventually, they adopted China’s political
system, the civil service exams, and Confucian
philosophy.
China Under Foreign Rulers
•
The Manchus ordered all Chinese to adopt Manchu dress and hair
styles. All Chinese males were to shave their foreheads and braid
there hair.
- Manchus were only 2% of the entire population of
China!
•
The Manchus adopted the Chinese political system and were
accepted by most Chinese as legitimate rulers.
- Accepted Confucianism
- Manchu nobles retained their aristocratic privileges but ethnic
Chinese were brought into the top ranks of government.
•
Manchus increasingly assimilated into Chinese civilization.
Useful Links for China
1.
2.
3.
4.
http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/chinese-dynastyguide.cfm - Art from the Far East
http://east_west_dialogue.tripod.com/id1.html
http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CHPHIL/CONTENTS.HTM
http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en/node_2.htm - Chinese culture,
history and achievements.