Topics
•The failures of the Apprenticeship scheme
•The Sugar Revolution
•The rise of Peasantry in the Caribbean
•The Use of Immigrant labour 1838 – 1917
•The Changing of the Sugar plantation and
new ways of earning a living
•The Caribbean since 1960
Looking ahead
1.
Why did the colonial office think that apprenticeship was the
first step to creating a free society?
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5.
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Because it gave apprentices the opportunity and time to learn skills
necessary when they were free
Because it gave the colonies time to develop the social necessities that
were not in place before.
Did the planters feel the same way?
No, they saw this as an opportunity to expand free labour.
How did the planters use apprenticeship regulations to serve
their own ends?
They were able to get more time out of apprentices and they could
monitor the time spent off the plantations.
Why did special magistrate have such a difficult time doing
what was expected of the by the colonial office?
Because they were paid such low wages that they could be easily bribed
by the planters.
Why did apprenticeship end in 1838?
B/c the planters rather to end the scheme than adhere to the changes
made by Richard Chamberline
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The Apprenticeship scheme:
◦ six year transitional period for both slaves and planters.
◦ It was made mandatory in Trinidad and British Guiana
and optional in other colonies
◦ Only Antigua did not adopt it.
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Planters were afraid that slaves would leave the
plantations so policing laws were passed and
Special Magistrates where sent to the colonies to
govern them.
Unfortunately the were paid only 40 pounds per
year and could be easily bribed by planters.
The laws were made by the local assemblies and
usually favored the planters; which made it very
difficult for apprentices to stray from the
plantations without a required license and
permission.
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The fear remained between the Colonial
Office and the planters that the mass
movement of apprentices away from the
plantation would led to the financial ruin of
the colonies.
Terms of the Scheme:
◦ Apprentices worked 40.5 hours per week before
they were paid.
◦ Elders and children were free and still had to be
taken cared of by the planters
◦ The Colonial Office hoped that the six years would
be enough time to build schools, housing,
hospitals, roads, etc.
Punishment for Apprentices
 When found guilty for a violation the common
punishment was the workhouse; which were
under the control of the local parishes in the
colonies.
◦ The usual form of punishment was the treadmill.
◦ In the work houses the laborers were required to
wear chains, not even used in the last years of
slavery.
◦ Females were often forced to shave their heads.
◦ On the plantations apprentices could have their
rations cut or stopped altogether.
Trinidad
 As the Governor as he read the Emancipation Act
slaves jeered and the riot act was called.
St Kitts and Montserrat
 There were many riots
Jamaica
 Many apprentices ran away and had to be
rounded up by the militias and returned to their
plantations.
British Guiana
 The Assembly assigned some apprentices as
constables and used them to convince the others
to maintain order
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There were very few honest magistrates, the few that
existed included Richard Chamberline, who was key in
ending the period.
The magistrates were required to send monthly reports
which contributed to ending Apprenticeship.
In 1837, when recommendations were made to take away
the work houses and eliminate flogging and the use of the
treadmill for females there came a consensus that the
Apprenticeship scheme should end completely in 1838.
Rather than comply with the recommendations the
planters preferred to end the scheme, hinging on the fat
that they would still be able to control the movement of
laborers through the licensing and ticketing system.
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The purpose of apprenticeship
The ex-slaves opposition to apprenticeship
The appointment of special magistrate
The new police laws
The close ties between the magistrate and
planters
The workhouses
The control of the apprentice on the plantations
Honest magistrates
Ending apprenticeship.
French Colonies
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Emancipation of slaves the French Caribbean that
came into effect by way of the French revolution was
maintained only in Haiti.
Slavery was re-implemented in these colonies
in1803.
The country passed laws to end slavery again in
1818; however, between 1818 and 1831, more than
100,000 new slaves were shipped to the colonies.
The reintroduction was accepted much like the
Apprenticeship scheme in the British Caribbean:
◦ Martinique experienced disturbances several times between
1822 and 1834.
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Amelioration was also adopted and by 1833
and slaves had to be registered and branding
and mutilation was outlawed.
Victor Schoelcher, a French abolitionist
travelled to the colonies in 1840 and
determined that slavery should end.
A secular movement, La Societe pour
l’Abolition de l’Esclavage was formed in
1834.
This group was more effective than any other
Britain had seen.
◦ In 1836, they achieved the emancipation of every
slave to set foot in France
◦ In 1838 a bill was drafted for the emancipation of
slaves.
◦ In 1847, the society called for an immediate
emancipation
◦ In 1848 a national petition was sent out
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This petition being more successful, led to
the abolition of slavery in Martinique and
Guadeloupe as well as Cayenne in South
America and Reunion in the Indian Ocean at a
compensation of about 50 francs per slave.
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In Cuba there became a decline in the tobacco
and boom in sugar around the 1700’s.
A rise in demand for the crop lead to demand for
slaves.
In1791, the Spanish slave trade was open and
persons importing slaves would export any item
duty free.
By 1817, slaves made up more than two thirds of
the population (224,000).
Risks of slave rebellions were greater due to
emancipation movement in British Caribbean
which provided safe haven for runaways.
Spain, during a 1815 Congress at Vienna,
promised to end the slave trade in 1817 and
signed a Reciprocal Search Treaty with Britain.
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Another agreement was made to abolish slavery in
1820, but the slaves continued to be imported at a
rate of 10,000 per year.
Anytime Spanish ships carried slaves they would
carry an American flag to prevent begin searched.
The manumission process in Cuba led that could
prove that he was imported after 1820 could be
liberated.
Fear remained that emancipation would lead to allblack republics like Haiti.
The pro-slavery groups in Cuba was considering
joining forces with the United States.
The British advocated for the abolition of slavery
for two basic reasons:
◦ Spanish sugar had been outselling sugar from the
British colonies.
◦ They wanted to keep Cuba out of the hands of
the Americans
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The American Civil War broke out in 1861
and this lessened the concern.
The Spanish monarchy was overthrown and
replaced by an anti-slavery republic.
During this same time, Cuba and Puerto Rico
were also struggling for their independence
which included plans for the emancipation.
In 1865, the Spanish islands achieved
Puerto Rico achieved the same in 1873
Compensation the planters totaled 35 million
pesetas
Cuba followed in 1886 with no compensation
at all.
1.
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4.
5.
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7.
8.
9.
How long was the Apprenticeship scheme to last for
field workers?
Which British colony chose not to adopt the
Apprenticeship scheme?
How many hours were Apprentices required to work
per week?
Which group of persons were exempted from
apprenticeships?
List three things the Colonial office hoped to
achieve during the Apprentice years.
What was the response to the Emancipation act by
Apprentices in Jamaica and Trinidad?
What was the role of the special magistrate?
Describe two ways in which Apprentices were
punished.
Who was Richard Chamberline and what role did he
play in Apprenticeship?
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To an outsider looking in the British colonies,
it would have appeared that all of them had
the same problems.
The islands that were large with small free
slave population faced major labour as well
as those problems with large free slaves who
shunned the plantation labour as in the cases
with Trinidad and Jamaica respectively.
Trinidad resolved its problem with
immigration whereas Jamaica refused to
combat the problem the same way.
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During and after the apprenticeship period
free village spontaneously emerged or
through the agitation of missionaries.
This movement has been credited with the
development of a working class better know
and “independent peasantry” or “yeoman
farmers” which became the backbone of the
West Indies.
These villages were more common in Jamaica
and Guyana.
Jamaica
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The freed villages in Jamaica were modeled
after the Maroon settlements established
before the end slavery.
They were positioned far away from the
plantations.
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Since most of the freed African were not able to
afford land, however there were a small few who
were privileged.
These persons usually purchased small plots, not
usually adequate for farming.
However, this was a means of keeping the
plantation workers near the plantations.
The majority who utilized the lands purchased
through the churches in England.
Before the end of slavery a Baptist missionary,
William Knibb, encourage the apprentices to
establish free villages.
His goal was to ensure that ex-slaves to own
their land as a part of the peasantry movement.
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He also encourage slaves that could save
enough money to purchase their own land to
settle on crown land.
As a result of his support, he found little
favour with the planters.
He was not the only missionary to support
the freed-slaves.
The first free villages was built on land
purchased by James Phillipo in 1835.
In this settlement called Sligoville, there were
100 families.
Sturgetown was built in 1838 by William
Knibb and hosted 75 families.
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The Africans who were able to purchase lands
during the Apprenticeship were much more
fortunate than their counterparts.
Not only were they able to gain proof of
ownership but the lands were already cleared and
very close to the markets.
In Antigua, the establishment of free villages did
not come until 1842 and this was through the
lobbying of the governor Sir William Colebrook.
His goal, like many others was to keep the freed
African as agricultural laborers.
His idea was first met with resistance from the
planters who wanted to maintain control of the
labourers, but was soon accepted after the threat
of opening the Colony’ crown land to the freed.
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The planters also saw a financial opportunity
in this as the freed men were willing to pay
hefty prices for poor land.
By the end of 1842 more than 27
independent villages had been established in
Antigua.
In Trinidad and Guyana, many of the planters
compromised by dividing the front of their
lands and sold them to workers.
The desire for land opened up many
opportunities for the exploitation of African
workers.
In 1840, the Governor of Jamaica had written
the Secretary of State to complain about this
matter.
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One example of which was the purchase of 283
hectares for 500 pounds by one Mr. Drummond of
Jamaica.
He divided the land and sold it to other planters, for
five times what he paid.
They then divided their plots and sold them to
Africans for eight times what they paid.
Rather than making them rich and happy the workers
became heavy in debt and miserable.
GUYANA
 In Guyana, ex-slaves had the good fortune of being
able to establish cooperatives.
 This meant that large groups f them would pool their
finances and purchase and entire plantations, while
dividing the work equally, as well as the expenses
and the profits.
 This was the case with the North Brook plantation
were 89 individuals bought one share of the property
in 1839.
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In 1852, the planters who had always been in
opposition to the cooperative scheme
convinced the governor to pass Ordinance
1which prevented the purchase of land by
more than 25 persons.
This was not a total hindrance, so Ordinance
33 was put into place which limited common
ownership to 10 and required cash payment
for the upkeep of the drainage.
This then forced many of the cooperative
members to leave their plantation in search of
work for wages.
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Every attempt was made for laborers to leave the
plantations.
By 1861, more than 1/3rd of the Jamaican freed
population made a living off the plantation with
sixty-five thousand of them Owning small farms.
By 1859, almost half of the Guianese population
was completely or partly independent.
The sugar duties Act was passed by the planters
in order to make up fro their losses and changed
the wages from 48 to 32 cents per day.
The import duties were lowered and more
laborers were encouraged to move away from the
plantation.
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Small farmers not only grew food for their
own consumption but sold some at market.
This simple process became one leg in many
steps that became a trade of “higgling”.
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The planters of the West Indies were more than
happy for the initiation of the Immigration scheme as
it came as a resolve to their immigration issues.
This movement occurred primarily in the Windward
islands, Barbados, Trinidad and Guyana.
The British Government, although not completely
behind the concept of the immigrant labour, as it
known as the “New Slavery”, stood behind the
planters as the labor issue remained and they had to
maintain the economy, though sugar.
It is not to say that the Government did not receive
pressure form the Anti-Slavery Society.
In order to resolves this matter, in 1838 James
Stephen was given the role of drafting the
Immigration Scheme into the emancipation Act.
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There were at least five groups impacted by the
scheme:
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Europeans
Madeirans and Maltese
Free Africans
Chinese and
Indians
Europeans
 European labour was primarily imported to Jamaica.
 During the years of Apprenticeship thousands of
Scots, Irish and Germans migrated to the islands.
 Many of whom would not work because the work that
they were issued they considered the work of the
Blacks.
 Those that managed to remain died out due to a lack
of immunity to the tropical diseases on the island.
 Another attempt at European labour was initiated in
1841.
 Some of whom also went to St. Kitts with practically
the same results, death or voluntary repatriation.
Madeirans and Maltese
 Persons from island European islands of Madeira
and Malta had been cultivating sugar from the
Renaissance period.
 Persons from this area were already experienced
in sugar cultivation.
 They were drawn to the islands buy the higher
wages, four pence per day.
 The Maltese immigration was very “stop and go”
as the scheme had been halted in 1839 and then
again in 1848 later it was restarted in 1841.
 During this time the treatment of the Madeirans
and the Maltese was investigated and although
the scheme was allowed to commence in 1850,
to remained on a much smaller scale.
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The importation of free Africans to the
Caribbean began in 1841.
This group of persons came from; Sierra Leone,
the Kru Coast, St. Helen or were rescued from
slave ships.
Some of whom were or were the descendants
of the Maroons who were deported in 1796.
This scheme was short lived some obvious
reasons [1841 -1862].
◦ The same private ships that often transported slaves
transported the emigrants, which gave a feeling of
slavery.
◦ The emigrants from West Africa were lured to the area
under false pretenses of labour.
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Chinese Immigration was known to last for a
long period of time, but had the most
problems.
Most of these emigrants went to Cuba with a
few going to the West Indies.
Trinidad attempted to import the Chinese at
the threat of abolition in 1809.
When this small group arrived they either
refused to work or were unsuited for the work
required.
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Some of the problems associated with this
scheme were:
◦ The Chinese government opposed it because it
was said to hurt national pride.
◦ Only Chinese men were allowed to immigrate and
it created a sense of jealousy between the locals
and the Chinese.
◦ It was most expensive to impart them from their
homes, 25 pounds.
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In 1837, John Gladstone, the owner of British
Plantation in British Guiana, applied for
permission to import Indian labourers to the
Colonies.
In 1838, almost 400 labourers flowed into the
colonies, but upon investigation it was found that
many of them died.
By July of 1838, the immigration had been halted.
Some of the Indians had been abused while other
was not paid what they had been promised.
Immigration again resumed in 1844 and lasted
until 1917.
The colony of British Guiana had been spending
in excess of 50,000 pounds per year on the
imports.
 The British government felt compelled to
continue the scheme as both countries were its
colonies.
 Guiana’s experienced a close call to bankruptcy
and the mistreatment of the "East Indians” as
they were called.
 By the end of the scheme in 1917 more than
416,000 Indians had arrived in the West Indies.
Classwork:
 1. What similarities and differences existed
between the different immigration schemes?
 Make note of the times and reason for the
immigration, and the conclusion of the various
schemes.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Describe how Ghana became a successful
independent nation and how it declined.
Describe how Mali became a successful
independent nation and how it declined.
Describe how Songhai became a successful
independent nation and how it declined.
Discuss the similarities of the success and
failures all three states and give two mutual
causes of their decline.
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The initial onset of the immigration required only that
the labourers arrive to the colony and work.
The planters began paying for the passage and then
required that they have contracts signed upon the
arrival.
In 1848, The Government gave planters permission to
have contracts signed at the port of embarkation.
The original contracts were signed for only one year.
In 1848, the contracts were extended to three years
and finally in 1863, the contracts were extended to
five years, the period of time which the planters had
been vying for.
Within the contracts were specifics as to the hours
and days that the labourers were to work.
N.B. Research and be prepared to explain the labour
conditions of the immigrant labourers.
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Objective: The economic and social impact of
the Immigration policy on the West Indies
There is much controversy about the actual
impact of immigrant labour on the sugar
industry post emancipation.
For the most part, most of the islands
experienced a boom in the overall profits and
production by the end of the 1800’s early
1900’s, however; there were other factors
that need to be taken into consideration.
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By 1848, the sugar production of British Guiana
had fallen to only 40% of the levels they existed
prior to emancipation.
By the end of the 19th century, the levels had
drastically risen to 250% of what existed before
slavery was abolished.
In Guiana it should have also been taken in to
consideration that substantial numbers of land
was sold for the cultivation of sugar had well as
there had been improvements in the
mechanization of the process of producing
sugar.
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Trinidad had practically the same response.
Although, there had never been a slump in
the sugar production because the wages had
remained high as well as the conditions were
good.
By the end of the century the levels were four
times greater than before emancipation.
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The island colony of Barbados imported no
immigrants labour faced an increase in the
output sugar of more than 250% by 1848.
To the same effect the levels decreased to
20% of the pre-emancipation levels by the
end of the century.
It should also be noted that Trinidad suffered
from the exhaustion of the soil as well as it
lacked mechanization in the process.
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Both Grenada and St Vincent had substantial
amount of immigrants labour; however, in
Grenada, the entire industry ended before the
end of the century while in St Vincent they
operated at about half of the preemancipation numbers.
The immigration schemes introduced
completely new cultures into the West Indies,
that for the most part remained isolated.
Asian were either Hindu or Muslim; 86 and
14% respectively.
The Indian were noted for their cultural segregation
the following are several reasons;
1.
The Indians were linked by strong kinship
2.
The immigration schemes kept them separated.
3.
When the Indians were out of indentured servitude,
they remained in agriculture and established
isolated Indian village which also grew rice, cocoa
and sugar cane.
4.
The Indian and Africans despised each other. The
Hindu and Muslim religions were despised by the
Africans and the Indians hated the “lose morals and
polygamy” of the Africans
5.
Hindus Indians spoke only Hindi and maintained
this, while refusing to send their children to school
for fear of them begin converted to Christians.
 Despite the resistance, the culture remained string
within the region and today has been better
integrated.
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The factors of success of the Plantations after Emancipation
Island
British Guiana
Labour
Soil/Topography Mechanization
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1. Why did the British West Indian colonies
turn to immigrant labour schemes after
emancipation?
2. What hardships did the indentured
labourers faces in the British West Indian
colonies after 1834?
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The Decline of Sugar Production after 1838
Objective: To describe the cause and impact of
the decline of sugar in the British West Indies
The Napoleonic wars pushed Britain to the
forefront as a monopoly in the sugar industry
despite the inflated prices.
N.B. What was the cause and outcome of the
Napoleonic wars? What countries were involved?
This was the only period of prosperity as
competition from the other sugar producing
countries leveled the playing field.
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The problems for the English colonies were
many and included;
◦ The labour problems as a result of the abolition of
the slave trade.
◦ The price of slaves rose
◦ The increasing price of sugar as a result of the
labour problem.
◦ The overall emancipation of slaves made this
difficult time even more so.
◦ The West Indies had now been receiving great
competition from the colonies on India and
Mauritius. The West Indies had enjoyed low rates
on the duty of sugar, but this privilege was also
extended to Mauritius in1825 and India in 1836.
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At the emancipation of Slavery, the sugar barterbased economy was not converted into a cash
economy.
The Apprenticeship should have been sufficient
time for this adjustment, however, the challenge
of the cash exchange proved extremely difficult
an adjustment.
The apprenticeship scheme should have been
enough time only in theory, but in fact there was
very little money in circulation and most of the
bills came out in 1838.
The slave’s wages had a vast range that could
mean that planter paid about 20 pounds for the
labour of 100 slaves in a place like Barbados, but
may have paid 60 pounds in a place like Trinidad.
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The wage bill led to the establishment of the
Planters’ bank in Jamaica in 1837 and the West
Indian bank in Barbados in 1840, and both of
which had branches on the other islands.
The capital for the banks was endorsed by
merchants in Liverpool and London.
Based on the strength of their crops, credit was
extended to the planters.
The process appeared to be good business as
long as the crops were successful.
When crop prices began to fall, partially due to
the Sugar Equalization Act of 1846, it led to the
collapse of many of the West Indian banks, due
to the customer’s inability to pay.
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Foreign Countries had cut their production costs
and were able to produce and sell sugar for
substantially less than the British; English sugar
22shillings per cwt, Cuban Sugar 12shillings per
cwt and Louisiana Sugar, 15 shillings per cwt.
To combat the prices, British Guiana, increased in
acreage for sugar plantations, which increased
production.
The best resolution, which British competitors
had adopted, was the mechanization of the
production process which would have lead to
lesser labour costs.
This kind of technology would have required
capital in order to purchase, however, these
island colonies were finding difficulty find more
investment in such a risky market.
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A final challenge of the Planters was the 4.5 %
export rate of the sugar that was required to
be paid, this was ultimately removed during a
period of desperation in 1838, but ultimately
the planters still paid more for any imports
coming to the island.
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The idea of free trade was only established
around 1776, with the theory of economist Adam
Smith, his ideas along with those of David
Ricardo, the author of "Principles of Political
Economy and Taxation" and the boom caused by
the Industrial revolution in Europe motivated the
British Colonies toward the concept of free trade.
Before the system of trade had been organized
around the barter system with planters receiving
credit for whatever crops were provided.
The free trade system would allow for the cheap
purchase of raw materials with capitalism
governing the open market, while duties
remained absent.
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Many British persons lobbied for the free
trade as the cost of sugar had risen
substantially and the British Government and
people had been subsidizing the industry in
the West Indies at a sum of £2,500,000 to
£4,500,000 per year.
In 1849 the Navigation acts were repealed
and the British Empire entered into free trade.
Many planters protested and revolted that
this move would lead to the end of the Sugar
Industry and in fact the period of 1846 to
1854 was a very critical to the industry’s
survival.
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The foreign competition caused such threat to the
British planters that the Act as it was implemented
gave leeway to the planters and allowed them a five
year grace period in order to adjust their prices
before free trade truly began.
1. What was the function of a special magistrate?
2. How apprenticeship schemes responded to by exslaves in Jamaica?
3. How many hours were in average work week for
slaves?
4. When were slaves to be paid for work completed?
5. Who was James Phillipo?
6. What does the term "higgling or haggling" mean?
7. What was the cause of the fall of the Planter's Bank
8. List three groups of immigrants imported to assist
in the labour shortages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Define the terms of the apprenticeship scheme. When it was set to
begin and end?
Which colony did not adopt the scheme?
What expectations did the Colonial office have of the scheme?
Note two examples of how the scheme was rejected?
Who was considered and “architect of freedom”. What was the role of
this person?
List three forms of punishment for unruly apprentices.
What recommendations did Richard Chamberline make to the Colonial
office regarding the punishment of apprentices? What was the
response of the planters?
Explain two ways in which planters were able to control the
apprentices outside of punishment.
Compare the reintroduction of Slavery in the French colonies to that of
the Apprenticeship scheme in the British colonies.
Compare the movement of the Society for the Abolition of Slaves
[French] to that of Quakers.
What compensation did the French crown give to the planters for each
freed slave?
What were the terms of the Reciprocal Search Treaty and when was it
signed?
When was slavery abolished in the Spanish colonies, and then Cuba?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Which two British colonies did hire immigrant labour?
Generally speaking, free villages were as a result of agitation
from which group?
Who were considered “yeoman famers”?
What became the model for African villages in Jamaica?
Why were William Knibb and James Phillipo not popular with
planters?
When was Sturgetown built?
When was Sligoville developed?
When did free African Villages become popular in Antigua, and
under whose influence?
Which colony was able to develop cooperatives?
What were two hindrances to the maintenance of these
cooperatives?
By 1861, what percentage freed Jamaicans lived off of the
Plantations?
What changes in wages did the Sugar duties Act produce?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
In which parts of the West Indies was the movement of the
immigration scheme widely accepted?
Why was the immigrants’ scheme considered new slavery?
What role James Stephen play in the Emancipation Act?
What was the result of the immigration of Europeans to
Jamaica?
What factors drew West Indians planters to import Madeirans
and Maltese workers and what drew these immigrate to West
Indies?
From which areas were labourers emigrated?
Why did the use of African labour not continue for an extended
period?
List the three problems that were faced with importation of
Chinese labor?
What role did John Gladstone play in the emigration of Indians?
What became the fate, of many of the first Indians?
What was relationship between Africans and East Indians in the
West Indies?
Why Indians did chose not to send their children to school?