A Brief Tour of Roman
History in the First
Century A.D.
Kristen Slattery, M.A.
&
Sheila E. McGinn, Ph.D.
Three Periods of Roman History
 Monarchy
753–509 BC
 Republic 509–27 BC
 Empire 27 BC–AD 476
Octavian “Augustus” (27 BC – AD14)

31 BC—defeats Mark Antony at Actium

27 BC—consecutive consulships to 23 BC
– Given title of “Augustus”

23 BC—Tribunician power
Augustus at Prima Porta


Brought peace (Pax
Romana) between
Romans
Had auctoritas (authority,
unofficial power)
– Has the powers of consul
and proconsul, and so is
equal to his co-magistrates,
but he has more authority
– His voice carries more
weight because he did
more for the state
Took title of Pontifex
Maximus in 12 BC.
Notice the Augustan
image: in 12 BC he would
have been 51 years old
but, no matter what his
age, he is always
portrayed as the eternal
eighteen-year-old.
Octavian’s Legacy
The genius of Augustus was that he made
himself indispensable to the empire.
 In some ways, Augustus was like Christ:
He described himself as the pinnacle of
history, as the new Aeneas. His reign was
a turning point in history
 Jesus was born during the reign of
Augustus.

Tiberius Claudius Nero (A.D. 14–37)
There were problems
with who would
succeed Augustus
because he only had
one daughter, Julia.
 Finally Tiberius,
Julia’s second
husband, won out
over the other
contenders.

Tiberius (AD 14–37)
What Tiberius does in terms of the state is
eliminate elections: now the voting for
various offices takes place in the Senate.
 Majestas (treason) trials: formerly they
had applied to those who went against the
state. Now, under Tiberius, they applied
to those who said anything against the
Emperor (Tiberius or Augustus), or who
praised Caesar’s conspirators.

Tiberius (AD 14–37)

Another story is that of the Prefect of the
Praetorian Guard, Sejanus. He was only
an equestrian, but lusted after power and,
as Tiberius’ second in command, began
strategically planning his own ascent to
power.
Tiberius (AD 14–37)
In A.D. 23 Tiberius began taking himself out of
politics; meanwhile Sejanus executed many
accused of majestas.
 Sejanus also asked to marry Tiberius’ daughter,
but was refused. He was made consul in 31.
 Also in 31, evidence was brought to Tiberius
that Sejanus had convinced Tiberius’ son’s wife
to kill Tiberius’ son, and so Sejanus was
arrested and killed.

Tiberius (AD 14–37)

AD. 31–37 Tiberius spent on the island of
Capri where he held his own reign of
terror…. Majestas trials continue, and
many of Tiberius’ family members are
eliminated.
Tiberius ( AD 14-37)
During the reign of Tiberius, Jesus began
his public ministry and was executed by
means of crucifixion around A.D. 30.
 Also under Tiberius the early Christian
church began, the Pentecost experience
happened, and Stephen was martyred.

Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
“Caligula” (A.D. 37–41)
Caligula was very autocratic; tried cases
by himself without a jury of advisors
(never been done before)
 Claimed he was Jupiter on earth
 Incestuous with his 3 sisters; liked Drusilla
the best and deified her after her death
 Assassinated by some Praetorian officers
and senators

Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus
(A.D. 41–54)

He felt inadequate because
1. He was not related by blood to Augustus;
2. He took the throne in a coup (and so had illegitimate standing);
and
3. He lacked charisma.


To legitimate himself, he invaded Britain in A.D. 43.
He was easily manipulated by his freedmen and wives
– He married four times. One wife was Messalina, a
great beauty who was executed when she was
caught being married to someone else.
– Another was Agrippina the Younger, his niece. He
changed the laws on incest so he could marry her.
Claudius as Jupiter
Claudius
(A.D. 41-54)
He granted citizenship to the Gauls in 48.
 Claudius overlooked his own son for Nero,
the son of his wife/niece, Agrippina. He
betrothed Nero to his daughter Octavia.
 Under Claudius’ reign, Paul began his
evangelization in different cities around
the empire, including Corinth, Athens,
Rome, Galatia, etc. This continued into
the reign of the next emperor, Nero.

Nero Claudius Caesar (A.D. 54-68)
Nero was 16 or 17 at the time of his succession;
he was the great-great-grandson of Augustus,
and so people had high hopes for him. Early in
his reign, he was dominated by his mother and
his tutors, Burrus, the Praetorian Prefect, and
Seneca the Stoic philosopher.
 There were problems with the Parthians in the
east, so Nero appointed Corbulo as sort of a
helper-emperor in the east. Corbulo gets too
powerful for Nero and is forced to commit
suicide.

Nero (A.D. 54–68)
Nero is crazy.
 Turning points:

– A.D. 59: Agrippina executed (her boat
“accidentally” collapsed; she escaped, but
then a praetorian killed her)
– A.D. 62: tutors gone (Burrus was poisoned,
Seneca was “asked to retire”)

Great fire in A.D. 64 (Tacitus exaggerates
a little about Nero’s role in it.)
Nero (A.D. 54–68)




Nero needed a scapegoat and so the Christians were
blamed for the fire. Persecutions of the Christians in
Rome only.
Nero the artist: he thought of himself as a great artist
and singer and performed in public…nobody was allowed
to leave during his shows. This is low, only the lowest
class perform in concerts.
Conspiracy of Piso in AD 65. Seneca and Petronius,
among others, are forced to commit suicide.
Nero eventually was declared a public enemy and
committed suicide.
The Julio-Claudian
Imperial Family Tree
A.D. 69: The Year of the Four Emperors
After Nero’s death, there was a question
of who would take over.
 In a nutshell, there were three minor
emperors who reigned during A.D. 69:
Galba, Otho, and Vitellius.
 Vespasian eventually won out. He had
been east fighting in Judea against the
Jews, but comes home to be emperor.
His son, Titus, finishes the war for him.

Titus Flavius Vespasianus (69–79)

In addition to the Jewish
War, he conquers more
territory in Germany and
reorganizes the eastern
provinces.

He has two adult children,
Titus and Domitian, and
marks them for succession.
In this he changes from an
adoptive succession to a
dynastic succession.
Titus Flavius Vespasianus (79–81)
Vespasian’s son
 Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79
 Completion of the Coliseum in 80 (Vespasian
built it, Titus dedicated it.)

– Coliseum was built on land that Nero had confiscated
from the city after the fire in A.D. 64.
– The amphitheater is named the “coliseum” because
Nero had built a huge colossus of Apollo there––with
Nero’s face on it.
Titus (79–81)

When his father became emperor, he finished
the Jewish war and was responsible for the
destruction of the temple in 70
Titus Flavius Domitianus (81–96)
Grouchy because Titus received nice
powers under their father, Vespasian, but
Domitian just got sloppy seconds.
 Changed his name to his wife’s name (He
married the daughter of Domitius Corbulo)
 Alienated the Senate because he gave
important positions to his friends instead
of those who had worked their way up.

Domitian (81–96)
He had monarchical tendencies such as
perpetual censorship, micromanagement.
 He also built a huge new palace and used
regal and divine terms (dominus et deus)
 He was murdered (like Nero) because the
imperial courtiers were alienated—he was
stabbed in the groin.
 No successor, world was afraid of another
A.D. 69 civil war/fight for power.

Marcus Cocceius Nerva (96–98)
He was very old. He was chosen to be emperor
because he was safe; he would not be around
long, and ensured a peaceful succession.
 Also, he had been there in A.D. 69 and
surrounded himself with people who knew how
to get through civil war.
 Although he never commanded a major army,
he was an expert in internal palace politics.
 His self-depiction was very pro-senatorial, as
opposed to Domitian.

Nerva (96–98)

97: Nerva is besieged in his own palace!!
– The praetorians demand the heads of those
who killed Domitian
– Now Nerva is shown to be weak

Nerva adopts Trajan and kills two birds
with one stone: he solves the problem of
who will succeed him, and Trajan leads a
huge army, so he solves the problem of
his own show of weakness.
Marcus Ulpius Traianus (Trajan)
(96–117)

He is Spanish and there are problems with his
legitimacy:
–
–
–
–

No blood ties with his predecessor
He’s the successor of a weak emperor
His succession looked like a coup, even if it wasn’t
He was not in Rome for the adoption or the
succession
After Nerva’s death, he doesn’t come home
right away. (He’s on the Danube securing the
frontier.) Before he comes he ensures the
loyalty of the Danube soldiers—this in a way
legitimates his power.
Trajan (96–117)
Early in his reign he fought 2 Dacian wars
 Loot from these wars allows him to build his
forum and column. Column is the spiral
depiction of the story of the Dacian war.
 Trajan was remembered as a great emperor
because he did great things abroad and at home
(called the Optimus Princeps —the best
emperor)
 Died of old age.

Forum of Trajan

Built as political propaganda

Used expensive colored marbles brought
from all over the empire; this shows
imperial power and wealth

It is the biggest and most grand of all the
imperial fora built after the original forum.
Letter from Pliny to Trajan

Pliny to the Emperor Trajan (ca. A.D. 110)
–
–
–
–
–
It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to my
hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. I therefore do not know what offenses it is the
practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any
distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether pardon is to be granted for
repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even
without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to be punished.
Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated
these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with
punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and
inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman
citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.
Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents occurred. An anonymous
document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when
they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be
brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really
Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they
were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years,
some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.
They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed
day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to
commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over,
it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed,
they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations.
Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called
deacons. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition.
I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you,
especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be
endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems
possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be
frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are
coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence it is easy to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if
an opportunity for repentance is afforded.

Trajan to Pliny
–
You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not possible to
lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved
guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it--that is, by
worshiping our gods--even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously
posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with
the spirit of our age.