Ancient History Source Bank
Topic 1 – Pompeii & Herculaneum
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Wallace-Hadrill
 On Amedeo Mauiri’s excavation intentions - His intentions were not for
purely archaeological purposes but more for patriotic or political gains,
with his interpretation based on “anecdotal rather than statistical
evidence and on false assumptions about the elite.”
Estelle Lazer
 Maiuri intentionally relocated human remains to make it appear as if
they had been looting a house, such as the House of the Menander, making
a more attractive tourist spectacle.
 Modern archaeologists such as Sara Bisel and Estelle Lazer have
studied the remains in order to discover more information about the
health, occupations and way of life of Pompeians.
 Lazer identified data from skeletal remains to determine how and why
they died.
Klesert
Ethical issues - “excavating, analyzing, studying details of indigenous
cultures, and curating human remains are actions, not thoughts and are
therefore subject to ethical constraints.”
 Ethical issues (human remains) - “The rights and wishes of the people
we study supersede our own research needs.”
 “Archaeologists are ethically required to act in the interests of those
studied, including their cultures, descendants and beliefs.”
Richard Ford
 Human remains ethics - “human skeletons are indispensible for
archaeological research yet wherever possible, the use of casts should
replace the actual object.”
Topic 2 – Sparta
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Xenophon
 Lycurgus - “brought his fatherland to this pinnacle of prosperity.”
 His main embellishment was of the ‘agoge’ system and the influence
that Lycurgus had on society.
 His continuous praise of Sparta comes from him living there for many
years, which can lead to heavy bias.
Herodotus
 Spartan army - “fighting together they are the best soldiers in the
world.”
Aristotle
 His main criticism stems from the level of rights and freedom that the
women of Sparta enjoyed, even going as far as attributing Sparta’s
downfall from 371 BC to women owning two-fifths of land.
 He also believed, as Herodotus did, that the Spartan constitution was
fundamentally flawed, as they did not prepare for anything other than
war.
 Constitution/Everyday Life - “for the arts of peace they knew nothing,
and had never engaged in any employment other than war.”
 He provides a very biased and one-sided account, which is shown as he
ignores the other attributes of Spartan society. For example, their trade of
pottery throughout the Peloponnese (with evidence found in even
Switzerland) and their heavy religious beliefs, which demonstrate that
they were more than just a wartime society.
Plutarch
 Gives a biography of Lycurgus that can be interpreted with some bias,
due to his heavy praise of the man, who he believes “stands in rank of
glory high above the founders of all other Greek states.”
 This is inaccurate though as Lycurgus has not been proven to be the
great lawgiver Plutarch describes but it does perpetuate the Lycurgus
myth.
Thucydides
 Talks of how he held admiration for Sparta’s internal strength and selfsufficiency and how he admired the Spartan way of life.
 While he admired their society, he also said how he was glad he did not
live there and saw that it was becoming an outdated society where the
helot problem revealed their weaknesses.
Topic 3 – Agrippina
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Tacitus
 Family Background - ”Agrippina’s exceptionally illustrious birth is
indisputable.”
 Marriage to Claudius - ”Agrippina’s seductiveness was a help. Her
criminal methods were necessary.”
 Influence during Reign of Claudius – “From this moment, the country
was transformed. Complete obedience was accorded to a woman. This
was a rigorous, almost masculine despotism.”
Grant
 Family Background – “She grew up in an appalling atmosphere of
malevolence, suspicion and criminal violence.”
 Role during Early Years of Nero’s Reign – “For a few startling and
unprecedented months, the empire was ruled by a woman.”
Griffin
 Marriage to Claudius – “Agrippina had achieved this dominant position
for her son and herself by a web of political alliances.”
Bauman
Influence during Reign of Claudius – “Agrippina used her influence over
Claudius not only to consolidate Nero’s claims, but also to enhance her
own position.”
 Agrippina on Coins – “Agrippina appeared in tandem with Nero,
sometimes as a goddess complementing Nero’s depiction of a god.”
Levick
 Influence under Claudius – “For Agrippina, the premature
advancement of Nero was itself an advertisement of her power.”
Scullard
Death of Claudius – “Even if she felt that the ultimate succession of her
son Nero was secure, she may have wished to see him on the throne while
he was still young to follow her advice and will.”
 Role during Early Years of Nero’s Reign – “Agrippina now meant to rule
through her son.”
Weidemann
 Loss of Control over Nero – “Agrippina’s loss of influence is illustrated
by the disappearance of her portrait from the coinage.”
Salmon
 Influence of Agrippina – “She was prepared, if necessary, to wade
through slaughter to a throne.”
Topic 4 – The Julio-Claudians
Tiberius
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Scullard
 Treason Trials – “Tiberius showed good sense and moderation in the
face of growing evil.”
 Imperial Building Programs – “Tiberius avoided extravagance and was
liberal when necessary.”
 “The only aspects that Tiberius can find to criticize are Tiberius’
ungracious manner and the law of treason.”
Tacitus
 Role and Responsibilities of the Senate – “Tiberius did not feel himself
capable of the whole burden of government.”
 “He was a shadow of the Senate’s ancient power.”
Suetonius
 Roles and Responsibilities of the Senate – “Tiberius showed the Senate
respect and consulted it on economic, military and foreign policy.”
Imperial Building Programs – “No magnificent public works marked his
reign.”
Levick
 Role and Responsibilities of the Senate – “Senate was incapable of
acting as a serious deliberative body.”
Lissner
 Development of Imperial Bureaucracy – “His conduct of governmental
affairs was characterized by intelligence.”
Payne
 Expansion of Empire – “His reign marked prosperity and generally
prevailing peace.”
Salmon
 Expansion of Empire – “Tiberius’ severity became proverbine: justice
and efficiency were indeed the twin goals of the reign.”
Growth of Imperial Cult and no major building projects marked his reign
Gaius
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Suetonius
 Role of Senate – “He immediately and unanimously conferred absolute
power upon himself.”
 Imperial Building Programs – “Had wickedly ingenious methods or
raising funds.”
 “Gaius the emperor was replaced by Gaius the monster.” (Downfall)
Barrett
 Role of Senate – “The Senate were reluctant to try and curb or restrain
him.”
Scullard
 Expansion of Empire – Gaius was “half-hearted” and “puzzling.”
No new building programs merely completed the works of Tiberius
Claudius
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Dio Cassius
 Imperial Building Programs – he “provided an abundant food supply.”
Suetonius
 Development of the Imperial Bureaucracy – “Claudius fell so deeply
under the influence of his freedmen that he appeared to be their servant.”
Shotter
 Development of the Imperial Bureaucracy – “the freedmen of the
Princeps became very rich, very influential and bitterly resented.”
Levick
 Role of the Senate – “He inflicted a deep wound in its authority and
self-regard.”
Salmon
 Development of the Imperial Bureaucracy – “to obtain administrative
efficiency, not to humble the Senate.”
Building Programs – Built 2 aqueducts (Aqua Claudia), port at Ostia, roads
Expansion of Empire – Invaded Britain and expanded the Empire