#1 Principles of Management Management: coordinating and overseeing the work activities of others so that their activities are completed efficiently and effectively A Functional Perspective: Planning: defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving those goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities Organizing - determining what tasks to be done, who to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, & where decisions are made Leading - directing and motivating all involved parties and dealing with employee behavior issues Controlling - monitoring activities to ensure that they are going as planned Things Learnt in Management Planning Organizing Leading Controlling Decision Making Strategic Management Organizational Culture Organizational Structure & Design Managing Teams Communication Motivation Employees Leadership Organizational Control Manager’s Roles Interpersonal, Informational, decisional Interpersonal Role Figurehead 首腦 Leader Liaison 聯絡 Informational Role Monitor Disseminator Spokesman Decisional Role Entrepreneur Disturbance Handler Ceremonial duties – greeting, touring, etc. Actions relating to the responsibility for a work unit Activities with those outside the vertical line of command “Scans” for or receives information Passes some of his privileged information directly to subordinates Speaks for his or other work groups, to a superior or someone outside the organization Seeks to improve his unit, align it to changing conditions in the environment Act to reduce pressure both from inside Resource Allocator Negotiator and outside Decide who gets what Negotiates based on resource allocation authority A Skills Perspective Technical: knowledge of and proficiency in a certain specialized field Human: ability to work well with other people both individually and in a group Conceptual: ability to think and to conceptualize about abstract and complex situations Management is action-oriented Is fast-paced: half of all activities last < 9 minutes Activities are disruptive & varied Is about knowing less of more Is 60-90% oral communication Information comes from gossip, hearsay 傳聞 & speculation 推測 (timely) Is dealing with calculated chaos & controlled disorder #2 Yesterday & Today Major Approaches to Management Historical Background of Management Organization have existed for thousands of years (e.g. pyramids, great wall) Significant pre-twentieth-century events Wealth of Nations (Adam Smith): division of labor Industrial Revolution: substitution of machine power for human; large organization required formal management Scientific Management (F.W. Taylor) Principles: use of scientific methods to define the “one best way” for a job to be done perspective of improving the productivity and efficiency of manual workers applied the scientific method to shop floor jobs, e.g. assembly-line General Administrative Theorists (Henri Fayol) concerned with making the overall organization more effective developed theories of what constituted good management practice proposed a universal set of management functions published principles of management General Administrative Theorists (Max Wber) developed a theory of authority structures and relations Bureaucracy 科層制- ideal type of organization division of labor clearly defined hierarchy detailed rules and regulations impersonal relationships - formal selection career orientation Quantitative Approach to Management Also called operations research or management science Evolved from mathematical and statistical methods developed to solve WWII military logistics and quality control problems Focuses on improving managerial decision making by applying: Statistics, optimization models, information models, & computer simulations Behavior Approach: Study of the actions of people at work 1. Early Advocates 主張: late 1800s and early 1900s believed that people were the most important asset of the organization ideas provided the basis for a variety of human resource management programs employee selection employee motivation 2. The Hawthorne Studies: A series of productivity experiments from 1927 to 1932 Experimental findings Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse working conditions. The effect of incentive plans was less than expected. Research conclusion Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence individual output and work behavior than do monetary incentives. Systems Approach System Defined - A set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole. Basic types of systems Closed system Open system Open System Contingency Approach / Situational Approach No one universally applicable set of management principles (rules) by which to manage organizations Organizations are individually different, face different situations (contingency variables), and require different ways of managing. #3 Organizational Culture & the Environment Omnipotent view of management: directly responsible for the success? Symbolic view of management: actual responsible part is minimal? Parameters of Managerial Discretion 界限 / 管理決斷權 Organizational Culture the shaped values, principles, traditions, and ways of doing things that influence the way organizational members act and that distinguish the organization from other organizations a common perception individuals describe organizational culture in similar terms a descriptive term 7 Dimensions of Organizational Culture Strong Cultures key values are deeply and widely held strong influence on organizational members Factors influencing Size of the organization Age of the organization Rate of employee turnover Strength of the original culture Clarity of cultural values and beliefs Benefits Strong employee commitment Aids in recruitment & socialization of new employees Higher organizational performance by instilling & promoting employee initiative Establishing & maintaining culture Source of culture Usually reflect the vision or mission of the founder How employees learn culture Stories: a narrative of significant events or people Rituals 儀式: repetitive sequences of activities Material artifacts 人工品 & symbols: essential in creating an organization’s personality Language: unique terminology or jargon 術語，行語 How culture affects managers Planning: degree of risk of plans Organizing: degree of autonomy of employees Leading: degree of concern for employees, style of leadership Controlling: criteria of evaluation in performance\ Golden Roles Find out what the organization rewards and do those things Know the rules of the game (even before you start to play the game) Ethical Culture High in risk tolerance Low to moderate aggressiveness Focus on means as well as outcomes … Managers should…for a more ethical culture Be a visible role model Communicate ethical expectations Provide ethics training Visibly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones Provide protective mechanisms so employees can discuss ethical dilemmas and report unethical behavior without fear External Environment: Factors and forces outside the organization that affect the organization’s performance Components Specific environment: external forces that have a direct and immediate impact on the organization General environment: broad economic, socio-cultural, political/legal, demographic, technological, and global conditions that may affect the organization Environmental Stability & Complexity Degree of unpredictable change Dynamic - frequent change Stable - minimal change Complexity Number of components in the environment Amount of information available or required about those components managers attempt to minimize uncertainty (change & complexity) Environmental Uncertainty Matrix (model) Stakeholder Relationship Management Stakeholders: any constituencies that are affected by the organization’s decisions and actions (including both internal and external groups) Organizational Stakeholders 4 steps to manage stakeholder relationships identify the stakeholders determine real and potential concerns of each stakeholder group determine whether stakeholder is critical determine specific approach to manage the relationship (approach to a stakeholder group based on the importance of the group and the degree of environmental uncertainty) #4 Decision Making Process 1. Identification of problem 2. Identification of Decision Criteria 3. Allocation of weights to criteria 4. Development of alternatives 5. Analysis of alternatives 6. Selection of an alternative 7. Implementation of alternative 8. Evaluation of alternative Rational Decision Making decisions are consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints managers assumed to make rational decisions not possible to always make rational decisions Bounded Rationality: behave rationally within the parameters of a simplified decision-making process that is limited by an individual’s ability to process information (- satisfice: accept solutions that are “good enough”) Intuitive decision making 直覺的 Based on “gut feeling” Subconscious process of making decisions on the basis of experience and accumulated judgment a rational analysis Types of Problems & Decisions Well-Structured Problems: straightforward, familiar, and easily defined Programmed Decisions: used to address structured problems minimize the need for managers to use discretion facilitate organizational efficiency Poorly-Structured Problems: new, unusual problems when information is ambiguous or incomplete Non-programmed Decisions: used to address poorly- structured problems - produce a custom-made response more frequent among higher-level managers Things to consider Certainty – for particular outcome Risk – risk you can bear expected value: the conditional return from each possible outcome What to do? Maximax choice: optimistic maximizing the maximum possible payoff taking the best of all possible cases Maximin choice: pessimistic maximizing the minimum possible payoff taking the best of the worst cases Minimax choice: minimize the maximum “regret” (difference between what you get and the best case) Case (minimax = look at what Mastercard will do first, If CA1 à you could have done S3 for +24) (figure out the each the maximum regret of S1-S4 à and then minimize Common Decision-making Biases & Errors gratification: 享樂 hindsight: 後見之明 Overview of Managerial Decision Making #5 Strategic Management Strategic Management: A set of managerial decisions and actions that determines the long-run performance of an organization Differences between: Vision, Mission, Goal, Objective, Strategy, Policy, Tactics? Strategic Management Process SWOT Analysis External Environment: Opportunities & Threats Internal Environment: Strengths & Weaknesses Levels of Organizational Strategy Organization’s Opportunities = Organization’s abilities X Opportunities in the environment What to do? The BCG Matrix ???????? Business level strategy Core competence Competitive advantage Porter’s 5-forces model - intensity of rivalry: Industry competitors power of customers / suppliers: bargaining power Strategies to be competitive Cost leadership Differentiation Focus Functional Level Strategy used to support the business-level strategy creates an appropriate supporting role for each functional area of the organization e.g. marketing, hr, manufacturing #8 Organizational Control Controlling: The process of monitoring, comparing, and correcting work performance Why control? Organizational activities can be completed Accomplish organizational goals Importance of controlling Planning verification – know things are going as planned Empowering employees – give feedback and information on their performance Protecting the workplace – enhance physical security, minimize workplace disruptions When the smallest mistake in organizational control became a big issue (examples) Iphone spoiler (2014/2010) damage to: Media and public relationship Legal proceeding issues & ramification Company image and reputation Profit Control Process 1. Measure actual performance 2. Compare actual performance against a standard 3. Correct deviations or inadequate standards 1 - Sources of Information for measuring Obtrusive: 莽撞的 2- Comparing determine the degree of variation range of variation: the acceptable parameters of variance between actual performance and the standard. 3 – Correcting Immediate corrective action: Corrects problems at once to get performance back on track Basic (fundamental) corrective action: Focus on how and why performance deviated Get to the bottom of the issue and fix it Immediate corrective action (examples): Apple & Malware Attack *** Although immediate corrective action is efficient to take care of problems. You need to be 120% certain about where the problem is. If not, immediate corrective action can actually backfire and lead to even bigger trouble. If Immediate Correction is Not Possible…. It is always a better move to slow down and look for basic corrective actions. *** Immediate corrective action failed (examples): Samsung Confirms Note 7 Recall after 35 reports of dangerous battery problems Basic (fundamental) corrective action (examples): Iphone 6s plus survives ‘bendgate’ test Revision of standard When Variance comes from unrealistic standard Revise to attainable goals/standard When performance consistently exceeds the goal Revise to increase standard Big caution about revising a standard “downward” with no good reasons. 3 Types of Control Feed forward control: pre-established rules & criteria Concurrent control: management by walking around / micromanaging (big no to this!) Feedback control: after the fact feedback: after the fact feedback Contemporary Issues in Control Cross-Cultural Difference Control techniques can be quite different for different countries Aware of constraints on corrective actions they can take Workplace privacy Employers can Read your e-mail (and Facebook, Twitter, etc.). Tape your telephone calls (e.g., call center) Monitor your work by computer (from server side) Store and review your computer files (shadow copy) Track your whereabouts in a company vehicle (LoJack) Employee theft (v.s. organizational citizenship behavior) Workplace Violence #9 Motivation Fact 33% have passion in their job need to develop motivation systems monetary system = deeply restricted motivation system Motivation = The process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal. Managerial goal: Manage by commitment Three source/levels of motivation 1. Visceral Motivation: hunger, fatigue, sexual arousal 2. Extrinsic Motivation: AKA incentives (rewards and punishment) 3. Intrinsic Motivation: enjoyment of the task Intrinsic Motivation Activity is rewarding in itself Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake Doing the work gives you a sense of accomplishment and achievement Extrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior to Acquire material or social rewards Avoid punishment Harry Harlow’s findings on Intrinsic Motivation Expected: Monkeys simply enjoyed playing the puzzles without receiving any food or reward Out of expectations: Surprisingly, monkeys’ performance to complete the puzzle actually decreased when reward was introduced All types of reward (IM) hinders intrinsic motivation (tho reward is great for tasks) Engagement-contingent rewards (e.g., pay when sign contract) Completion-contingent rewards (e.g., pay when complete work) Performance-contingent rewards (e.g., pay when do good work) External Rewards Hurts because it gives you a “reason” to work on a goal it removes your inner passion Consequence of Extrinsic Motivation Hinder work performance Hinder creativity and innovation output at work Increase IM Give autonomy = acting with freedom to meet organizational objectives with accountability Autonomy can motivate employees 3 basic elements of autonomy 1. Choice over task: you decide what you work on 2. Choice over time: you decide when you work 3. Choice over technique: you decide how you work Motivation Audit Reviews and makes sense of your motivation approach & levels Recalibrate 再校準 your own motivation to an optimal level To have motivation audit when… 1. Observe behavior that is difficult to understand, especially ones that are counterproductive to your organization’s goals (e.g. paid well but still not motivated) 2. See a sudden decline in effort in general Motivating Performance: The Audit Content Theories Tell us what motivates behaviors Identify needs that motivate effective behavior Maslow’s Need Hierarchy theory Process Theories Tell us how to motivate behavior Focus on how workers choose among alternative behaviors and levels of effort Expectancy theory Equity theory Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (!943) 5 Basic Needs from Low to High: 1. Physiological 2. Safety 3. Affiliation 聯繫 4. Esteem 5. Self-actualization There is a Satisfaction-Progression Rule Fulfillment of higher order needs is NOT motivating until lower order needs are fulfilled Lower order needs are only motivating up to a threshold 門檻 Have some empirical support, BUT Progression is not always supported (several simultaneous needs, fulfill higher order needs before lower one) Importance of needs is culture-specific (changed by learning and experience, e.g. age) Interpretation of specific rewards varies (e.g. salary = safety/appreciation?) Summary: Different people have different needs at different times. do not be egocentric / ask to be sure do not assume employees’ needs are the same employees’ needs change over time Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964) People would act in specific ways (than in other alternatives) because they expect their selected behavior would lead to certain results and outcomes. 4 components that determine motivation A. Desirability of reward B. Performance level C. Performance-to-reward expectancies: Perceived probability that a performance level “guarantees” a reward D. Effort-to-performance expectancy: Perceived probability that an effort level leads to a performance level Desirability of reward Know what employees really want Know “for sure” what they want to achieve correct organizational goals Perverse incentives 不正當獎勵措施: You get the behavior you reward NOT the behavior you want e.g. management hope for teamwork, but rewards individual effort Backfire from Removal of Rewards People anchor on treatment, habituate to its benefits … any cutback is tough Removing perks 津貼 can undermine motivation If you really need to reduce the reward, find the one that demoralize 令士氣低落 the least Rewards summary Rewards can be idiosyncratic 特別 You get the behavior you reward Lost rewards are painful Punishment Advantages of punishment To eliminate noxious, corrupting behavior (e.g. fraud) Short-term: When short-term failure to meet a particularly critical goal has catastrophic effects on the firm BUT ineffective at sustaining motivation in long term & when used comprehensively How to Punish Should follow negative behavior immediately Should focus on the negative behavior, not on the individual Provide specific information about the right way of doing things and how this positive behavior will be rewarded SMART Goals Goal-Setting Pitfalls (Traps) Equity Theory Motivation results from a person’s Effort-to-Rewards ratio (self’s effort/rewards = coworkers’ effort/rewards) comparison cannot be avoided - we derive joy from being better than others, this is an innate trait How People Really Make Comparisons/Decisions? 1. Egocentric Bias (Ross & Sicoly, 1979): overstate & over claim the effort Availability heuristics 有限的知識 One’s contribution to a joint product is more readily available in memory / More frequently and easily recalled Information about the self is recalled more accurately 2. Fundamental Attribution Error A systematic bias in how individuals view their contributions and the contributions of others In general, people tend to attribute others’ behavior to internal traits, rather than circumstances A Biased Decision Making Matrix 3. Strategic Definitions of Fairness People tend to select standards that favor themselves when making fairness evaluations and appraisals. People also tend to set low bars for themselves and high bars for others. Summary: Difficult to achieve fairness Egocentric Bias: I’m more aware of my contributions than your contributions; I think I’m above average. Fundamental Attribution Error: I interpret your failures as dispositional (but mine as situational). Criteria for Fairness: We strategically rely on different definitions of fairness. #10 Organizational Structure & Teams Organizational Structure: The formal arrangement of jobs within an organization Departmentalization Advantage: Easy to implement & manage Disadvantage: Not flexible & isolated Contemporary Organizational Adaptive Designs Team Structure: e.g. start-ups, consulting firms, law firms, etc. Matrix-Project Structure: rationale – make it easy to know where to look for specialized experts Successful Teams Set a stretch, specific goal Division of labor Specialization Create rules beforehand for reacting to problems Rule of speaking Unanimous 一致 Leader must be the connector and integrator of divided & specialized tasks and information Failed Teams No goals being set in addition to the goal that was given No division of labor No Specialization No one in charge of connecting divided tasks React to errors by tearing up and starting again Leader often ignores his own work as source of problem Coordination Neglect Actual Productivity = Potential Productivity – Process losses Group: Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve specific goals. Informal Group: Groups that are independently formed to meet the social needs of their members e.g. family group, friend group, student club Formal Group: Work groups defined by the organization’s structure that have designated work assignments and tasks 4 Formal Work Group Examples 1. Command Groups (e.g. TMT) Determined by organizational chart, report directly to a manger 2. Task Groups (e.g. catering, IT support) A group of people brought together to complete a specific job 3. Cross-functional Teams (e.g. matrix-project structure) Bring in knowledge and skills of individuals from different work areas and functions 4. Self-managed Teams (e.g. school division) An independent group that not only complete tasks but also in charge of traditional management responsibilities 5 Stages of Group Development 1. Forming Stage: join, define group’s purpose, structure & leadership 2. Storming Stage: characterized by intragroup conflict 3. Norming Stage: redefine directions after resolving conflicts / characterized by closer relationships & cohesiveness 4. Performing Stage: Rules & relationships are all in order / the group is fully functional and works on group tasks 5. Adjourning Stage (not always happen): temporary group: concern with wrap up rather than performance Causes of groups’ mid-life crisis 1. Too-much-talent effect: Every talent wants to be the boss in the team to call the shot Superstars are good for a team up to a point Solution: Delegation 分配 1. Discover what each talent is uniquely good at 2. Put the suitable talent in leadership role when specific situation arises 3. Every talent gets to play the big game sometimes 4 Sources of Group Problems: 1. abilities of group’s members 2. size of the group 3. level of conflict 4. internal pressure on members to conform the group’s norms Group Performance / Satisfaction Model External Conditions The organization’s strategy Authority relationships Formal rules and regulations Availability of resources Employee selection criteria The performance management system and culture The general physical layout of the group’s work space Group Member Resources Knowledge Abilities Skills Personality Traits 人格 Group Internal Structure Role: Behavior patterns expected of someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Norms: Standards or expectations that are accepted and shared by a group’s members. e.g. overtime policy (jp vs usa) / whether to hang out with co-worker after work Groupthink: When a group gives extensive pressure on an individual to align his or her opinion with the rest of the group Why People Conform Lack of knowledge (uncertainty of situation) Want to be liked by the group (might know the right but just go along) Pressured by power and status (loyalty: boss said so) Reduce Conformity / Groupthink Structural Change: provide official guidelines (opinions + explanation + back up) Devil’s advocate: Challenge with opposite opinions to stimulate discussions and debates to test the strength of the opposing arguments Group Internal Structure (cont.) Status: A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group. Status is conferred 授予 by other people. Group Size & Social Loafing (free rider) The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. The bigger the group, the worse the issue. Group Cohesiveness: The degree to which group members are attracted to one another and share the group’s goals Surface Level Similarity / Faultlines 斷層 (e.g. skin, sex) Deep level Similarity (e.g. culture, education background) Group Processes: Processes that go on within a work group determines group performance and satisfaction, include: communication decision making conflict management Group Decision Making Advantages: More complete information and knowledge A diversity of experience and perspectives Increased acceptance of a solution Better detection of deceptions from other competitors/groups Disadvantages: Groups almost always take more time Dominant and vocal minority can influence the decision Groupthink Group Discussion improves Lie Detection Group Tasks Types of group tasks moderate the relationship between group processes and the eventual performance and satisfaction Simple vs complex tasks Independent vs interdependent tasks Rule of thumb: for complex and interdependent tasks, more group discussions are needed to ensure coordination. #11 Leadership Leadership: the capacity to motivate, enable, and integrate a collection of individuals toward the success of a common goal or shared purpose involves any behavior – which can come from anywhere in the organization – that positively influences the group to achieve its goals leader is more comprehensive concept than that of manager leader also encompasses manager’s role and duties good manager is not always a good leader all mangers aspire to be good leader A Great Leader should be: Setting shared purposes and common goals Motivating Enabling (empowering) Integrating (talents, ideas, resources,etc.) 9 Leadership Theories / Approaches 1. The great man theory 2. The trait theory 3. The behavioral/skills theory 4. The situational leadership theory 5. The contingency theory 6. Transactional leadership 7. Transformational leadership 8. Leader-member exchange theory (LMX) 9. Servant leadership 1. The Great Man Theory Leaders are born and not made Originated in 19th century Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were already great leaders. Often from the aristocracy (highborn). The notion that leadership had something to do with breeding. “Gender” wasn’t an issue, most leaders were men. Important Belief: Great Leaders will arise when there is a great need (passive & pessimistic) 2. Trait Theory (1920s-1930s) Shifted from studying leader as a whole (the great men) to identifying specific traits that make a leader. (From passive observation to systematic identification) Assumption: People are born with inherited traits - Some traits are particularly suited for leadership. - People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits. Research in this area focused on identifying personal characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders Some of the traits studied included physical stature, appearance, social class, emotional stability, fluency of speech, and sociability Problem: impossible to identify a set of traits Inferior Leadership Styles It okay for men to be angry It okay for women to seek help 3. Behavioral Theory (1940) Marks a major paradigm 範例 shift in this area. New assumption: Leaders can be made, rather than are born. Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior. Focus: Identify behaviors that differentiated effective leaders from ineffective leaders. How? By observing what leaders actually do. 4 major theories 1. The University of Iowa studies 2. Ohio State University studies 3. University of Michigan studies 4. Managerial grid 1. The University of Iowa studies Autocratic Style (tight control) Democratic Style (openness & inclusion 包容) Laissez-faire Style (high freedom & empowering) 2. Ohio State University studies 2 dimensions of leader behavior: Initiating structure (high/low): the role of the leader in defining his or her role and the roles of group members. Consideration (high/low): the leader’s mutual trust and respect for group members’ ideas and feelings. high consideration/high structure leaders = BETTER 3. University of Michigan studies 2 dimensions of leader behavior: employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment more employee oriented – high group productivity & job satisfaction 4. Managerial grid 2 dimensions of leader behavior: concern for people (low-middle-high) concern for production/task Place managerial styles in 5 categories: Impoverished 破產 management (low-low) Task management (low-high) Middle-of-the-road management (middle-middle) Country club management (high-low) Team management (high-high) Summary of Behavioral Theories focused on leaders’ preferred behavioral styles (2 dimensions – task and relationships) not concerned about follower’s perspective / environment influences 4. Situational Theory 3 forces lead to leader’s action forces in situation forces in follower forces in leader leader’s style is highly variable 5. Contingency Theory 偶然 The leader's ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including The leader's preferred style. The capabilities and behaviors of followers. Situational factors. Leaders sometimes very effective and sometimes unsuccessful Example: Michael Jordan Situational VS Contingency Similarity: “no simple one right way” Differences: Situational Theory Contingency Theory Leader’s style can adapt to different situations. Assumes that leaders have all the capacity to change their work styles. Leader’s preferred style is quite fixed and cannot change with followers and situations. More realistic to the leaders we observe Contingency Theory Examples Fiedler’s Contingency Model (1960s) Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (1970s) House’s Path-Goal Theory (1971) 1. Fiedler’s Contingency Model (1960s) Effective group performance depends on the proper match between: A leader’s preferred work style & the specific situations 2 leadership work styles were identified: task/ relationship oriented these two styles have strong general role implication Three levels of situational factors: Leader-member Relations: degree of confidence, trust, & respect employees had for their leader Task Structure: degree to which job assignments were formalized and structured Position Power: degree of influence a leader had over activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases 2. Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory( 1970s) Matching with leaders’ work styles & followers’ readiness Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. (1) Telling (high task–low relationship): The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks. (2) Selling (high task–high relationship): The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior. (3) Participating (low task–high relationship): The leader and followers share in decision-making; the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating. (4) Delegating (low task–low relationship): The leader provides little direction or support. Followers’ Readiness R1: not competent 能幹/confident R2: motivated but lack appropriate skilss R3: competent, but unwilling R4: able and willing Match Leader Style with Follower Readiness 3. Path-Goal Theory Leader’s job is to assist followers in attaining their goals 4 leadership styles Directive leader: let people know expectations, schedule work to be done, give specific guidance Supportive leader: concern for needs of followers & friendly Participative leader: consult with group member and use their suggestions before decision-making Achievement oriented leader: set challenging goals & expect highest level 6. Transactional Leadership A style of leadership in which the leader promotes compliance of his/her followers through both rewards and punishments Leaders lead primarily by using social exchanges (or transactions). It works the best with a clear chain of command. They are often considered as “managers.” 7. Transformational Leadership A type of leader with vision and passion to initiate new goals or to change the status quo. They aim to stimulate and inspire (transform) followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes. The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy. People will willingly follow a leader who inspires them 8. Leader-Member Exchange Model (LMX) focus “relationship” between leaders & followers Leader will categorize employees into “ingroup” and “outgroup” at the early stage The relationship is quite stable over time Ingroup members Outgorup members More access to resources Given less involvement, choices, and More responsibility influence Only do necessary work in their roles More involvement in decision making Contribute less More influence Fewer growing opportunities and Higher performance ratings promotions Less turnover Less challenging work Greater job satisfaction Less loyalty High motivation Less motivated High commitment Problems by LMX: Job Insecurity Engage in more “Impression management” 9. Servant Leadership A new form of leadership that tries to challenge the existing leadership paradigms. Focuses primarily on the growth and well-being of people and the communities to which they belong. Traditional leadership generally involves the accumulation and exercise of power by one at the “top of the pyramid.” The servant-leader shares power, puts the needs of others first and helps people develop and perform as highly as possible. Examples: Richard Branson Outcomes Increase: Job satisfaction Job performance Organizational profit Return on investment Commitment Reduce turnover rate Challenge: How to revert current assumptions, ideas, and practices of hierarchical leadership to increase organizations to adopt servant leadership #Organizational Communication (Chp. 14) • • • • Interpersonal process of sending and receiving symbols with messages attached to them Critical management skill Foundation of effective leadership Control, motivation, emotional expression, information Ways of communication Speaking Writing Body Language Visual Image Communication Goals To get and give Information To persuade To change behavior To get action To ensure understandin g Arrow model of communication • Sender > encoding > delivery through a channel > decoding > receiver Dance model of communication • Meaning is a result of ‘content’ + ‘context’ + ‘interaction’ • Not necessarily exchange of information Different Channels Comparison • Feedback potential • Capacity to handle complex messages • Breadth potentials (multimedia, synchronicity 同步) • Confidentiality • Ease of encoding & decoding • Time-space (equipment) constraints • Cost • Interpersonal ‘warmth’ • Formality • Scanability • Control in the time of consumption Examples of Media Richness Organizational Communication – Organizational communication is shaped by the organizational context which includes: • Organizational structure – Downward communication, upward communication, horizontal communication • Status and Power (climate of trust), formal and informal channel, structure and culture • Type of information - hard Vs. soft Barriers to Communication 1. Filtering → more favorable to the receiver → upward communication is condensed by senders to avoid information overload by top-level receivers → extent of filtering affected by: number of vertical levels; culture of organization 2. Selective perception - what people see and hear influenced by their attitudes, background and experience 3. Emotions - interpretation of a message affected by the way the receiver feels 4. Information overload - information available exceeds processing capacity → frequent complaint of executives 5. Defensiveness - behaviours that result from feeling threatened 6. Language - meaning of words differs among people 7. National culture - culture affect the way people communicate Overcoming the barriers 1. Use feedback - ask a set of questions about the message 2. Simplify language - tailor the language to the audience 3. Listen actively - listen for full meaning Active Listening Behavior Communication Errors • Finishing others’ sentences • Preparing our response before someone has completed speaking • Multitasking while ‘listening’ • Filtering content or meaning based on the speaker • Speaking for others (we…) Communication Style → skills → steps
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