Chapter 3: Managing Diversity and
Regulatory Challenges
1. South Africa's Diverse Population & Workforce




21st Century Challenges: Work relationships are influenced by rapid changes, globalization, technological
developments, and the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
Organisations need to adapt to changing environments, increase human capital, and create equitable workplaces.
HR needs to step up to the challenge by assisting employers and employees to work effectively.
Population Groups (2019 data):
o
o
o
o


African: 80.5% (majority population).
Coloured: 8.5%.
Indian/Asian: 2.6%.
White: 7.8% (declining, fewer than two decades of democracy, White people will no longer dominate top
management positions in SA workplaces).
Employment Equity Commission (EEC) Data (2019-2020):
o White people: 43.2% in top management, 34.7% in senior management.
o African people: 10.0% in top management, 9.4% in senior management.
o Challenges: Organisations tend to refer from tokenism, appointing a small group from designated groups to
high-profile positions, rather than seeking full representation.
o Language: More than 11 languages spoken, with English most commonly used as the language of
communication.
Women in the Workforce:
o
o
o

Proportion of working-age women is lower than that of their male counterparts (44.3% vs. 45.4% in 2020).
Women remain vulnerable due to low-skilled and unskilled positions.
Employment Equity (EE) Reports (2019-2020) show women are substantially more than men in top
management (75.6% vs. 24.4%). This indicates female representation in top management has increased by
11.4% since 2001.
o Organisations like Standard Bank and Siemens proactively implement diversity programs to achieve gender
equality.
Challenges for Women:
o
o
o
o
o
o

Lack of flexible work arrangements.
Difficulty balancing career and family responsibilities.
Experience more family responsibilities and emotional labour than male counterparts.
Suffer financial difficulties.
Work-life balance needs improvement.
Need to ensure maximum employee productivity through adaptable work schedules (e.g., compressed hours,
flexi-time, telecommuting).
Stereotyping and Prejudice:
o
o
o

Managers still display stereotypical behaviours.
Women of colour (Black and Indian women) face more prejudice than White women.
Global Gender Gap Index (2020): SA ranked 17th out of 153 countries, indicating poor equality between men
and women in terms of labour force participation.
o Stereotypes of Black and White men: Black men are perceived as less successful, White men as more
successful managers, stemming from patriarchal traditions.
Age of the Workforce:
o
o
o
o
South Africa has a relatively young population (~60% under 34).
High unemployment rates, 30.8% in Q3 2020.
Unemployment rate is highest for people in the younger age categories (under 35 years old).
South Africa's population of 2.5 years and older, almost 2.1 million people, do not have formal education.

South Africans with Disabilities:
o

Definition of Disability: A physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life
activities.
o Types of special needs: Physical, learning, and personal problems.
o Prevalence: 1.5% of the SA population in 2020.
o Challenges:
 Do not have the right skills.
 Are too costly to employ (research shows employers over-estimate costs).
 Are often unrecognised by colleagues.
 Co-workers are uncomfortable, leading to poor morale and reduced productivity.
 Getting information on how to hire people with disabilities is time-consuming and complicated.
o Employer Recommendations ("HR in Focus"):
 Enrich workplace diversity programs.
 Make a corporate commitment to include people with disabilities.
 Ensure appropriate policies, procedures, and practices.
 Provide disability awareness training.
 Ensure staff are familiar with legislation.
 Establish partnerships with community agencies.
 Train and advance workers with disabilities.
 Provide continuous information on disability issues.
Sexual/Affectational Orientation:
o
o

SA Constitution prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation.
SA is one of the 173 member states that have acknowledged sexual orientation as prohibited ground of
discrimination under International Labour Organisation (ILO) Convention No. 111 of 1958.
o Organisations should respond to ILO calls for equality and non-discrimination, implementing policies that
prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation.
o This includes Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex (LGBTI) individuals.
o HR policies should promote diverse and inclusive workplaces for all employees, regardless of
sexual/affectational orientation.
HIV and AIDS:
o
o
o

SA has a huge impact from HIV and AIDS (7.5 million people living with HIV in 2020).
SA is taking a leading role in dealing with HIV and AIDS in the workplace.
ILO Recommendations of 2010: Objective to develop and implement policy guidelines to assist employers,
employees, and their organisations in managing HIV and AIDS.
o Programs should eliminate unfair discrimination and stigma, provide testing and disclosure, promote access to
equitable employee benefits, and ensure healthy working environment.
Religion:
o
o
o
SA Constitution ensures freedom of religion, thought, belief, and opinion.
Major religions: Hindus, Muslims, Jews, and Buddhists.
Employers have close shave with religious discrimination:
 The Employment Equity Act (EEA) prohibits unfair discrimination on arbitrary grounds, including
religion.
 Employers must not discriminate against an employee or applicant for employment purely on
religious grounds.
 Case example (Ivan Israelstam): An employee claimed religious discrimination after being dismissed
for wearing a beard and turban for religious reasons; the employer's actions were found
discriminatory because religious rules were not respected.
 Employers must be careful when dealing with religious accommodation requests.
2. Managing Diversity


Diversity Management: The development and implementation of organisational policies and practices intended to
embrace employee differences and promote inclusion with the aim of leveraging each employee's unique contribution.
Key Aspects:

o Achieve better utilisation of the organisation's diverse workforce.
o Promote cultural and organisational excellence.
o Ensure productivity and competitive advantage.
o Manage diversity to leverage unique employee contributions.
Benefits of Managing Diversity:

o Maximising employee potential.
o Attracting, retaining, and utilising the best talent.
o Enhancing communication, understanding, and trust.
o Promoting greater productivity and flexibility.
o Developing enhanced creativity, innovation, adaptability, and problem-solving.
o Developing timely responses to diverse customers and markets.
o Utilising all people to maximise growth.
o Expanding the breadth of understanding in leadership.
o Enhancing global competitiveness.
What is Diversity?:
o
o
Any collective mixture characterised by differences, similarities, and related tensions and complexities.
Dimensions of Diversity:


Primary Dimensions: Inborn and exert major impact (age, ethnicity, gender, physical
abilities/qualities, race, sexual/affectational orientation).
 Secondary Dimensions: Can be changed, discarded, or modified (education, geographic location,
income, marital status, military experience, religion, work experience, parental status).
 Functional Level/Classification and Organisational Dimension also exist.
Stereotypes and Prejudices:
o
o

Stereotype: A fixed, distorted generalisation about a group.
Prejudice: Preconceived notion, opinion, or judgment, especially when unfavourable, formed without
knowledge, thought, or reason.
o They create an imbalance of power and prevent women from achieving equal employment.
o Impact: Leads to unfair discrimination, reduced productivity, lack of motivation, and poor morale.
Assimilation:
o
o

The belief that diverse groups should conform to the dominant group's performance and style.
Organizations that value diversity do not aim for assimilation; instead, they value individual contributions from
all groups.
Valuing Diversity:
o

The first step in managing an organisation to value diversity is to acknowledge the fundamental difference
between valuing diversity, on one hand, and employment equity/affirmative action, on the other.
o Employment Equity: A legal approach to workplace discrimination.
o Affirmative Action: A response to protected groups' injustices; focuses on visible groups.
o Valuing Diversity: A broader, more inclusive approach focused on creating a humanistic culture that celebrates
differences.
Diversity Programs:
o

Most common programs classify diversity as an aspect of race, gender, and LGBTQI equity, dealing with
general dissimilarities.
o Aim to enhance awareness and create sensitivity towards individual and group differences.
Model of a Diversity Management Strategy:
o
Valuing Diversity in the Workplace

Culture:





Organisational-wide image.
Fosters mutual respect.
Fosters a sense of belonging.
Differences are accepted.
Corporate-wide diversity training programme.


Concern for fairness (equal respect, equal performance, equal opportunities, equal rewards,
equal pay, valuing diversity).
Opportunity:






Career development (promotion of multicultural employees).
Opportunity for development of new skills.
Preference to underrepresented groups in promotion.
Access to top management positions.
Hiring practices (active recruitment, hiring of multicultural employees, equal opportunities,
employment equity programme).
 Leadership:
 Management Practices (take all employees seriously, recognise capabilities, support all
employees, communicate effectively, value a diverse work group).
 Respect cultural beliefs and needs.
 Accept non-English speaking employees.
Diversity Education and Awareness Training:
o
o
Importance: Critical for changing attitudes, building awareness, and promoting empathy.
Types:


o
Values clarification: Helps individuals understand their own preference and how they believe
organisations rank values.
 Perceptual differences: Helps individuals understand that their perceptions may exist in the
workplace.
 Problem-solving case studies: Participants discuss factual content and determine how to best resolve
problems involving diverse groups.
 Exploring cultural assumptions: Discussions about assumptions regarding culture, gender, or religion.
 Personalising the experience: Trainees try to make everyone aware of their own uniqueness and the
possibility of different perceptions.
Problems with Diversity Training:
o
 Trainers' own psychological values may override objective training.
 Trainers may be unqualified or using biased material.
 Training is too brief, too late, or used as a crisis intervention.
 Training is viewed as a problem, not a solution.
 Training is seen as compliance, not a proactive change initiative.
 The content of diversity training is too narrow.
 Political correctness prevents genuine discussions.
 Individual styles are not respected.
 Training is seen as a "one-off" event.
 Resource material is outdated.
 Training addresses the symptoms, not the underlying issues.
When is Diversity Training Effective?:
o
 Focuses on substantive changes, individual, and organisational.
 Motivation is linked to bottom-line goals.
 Accountability is a priority.
 Integrated into organisational functions and planning.
 Viewed as a long-term process.
 Utilises a wide range of approaches.
 Trainees return to a supportive environment.
Follow-up process for effective training:
 Focus on cosmetic changes.
 Primary motivation is to minimise costly lawsuits.
 Little to no accountability.
 Stand-alone training.
 Viewed as a one-off event.
 Trainees "off-the-shelf" approaches.
 Trainees do not take training with them.
Language Sensitivity:

o Using appropriate language helps manage diversity.
o Examples of insensitive language: "reverse racism," "crippled boy/girl," "spotlight differences," "black doctor".
o Avoid stereotypes and generalizations.
The Multicultural Organisation:
o
o
o
Organisations leading in diversity create competitive advantage.
They value diversity and the greatest benefits are classified as multicultural organisations.
Steps to create a multicultural organisation (Lewin-Schein change model):
1. Step 1: Unfreezing: Begin by unfreezing the current culture. Establish a diversity steering committee
and commit to diversity.
2. Step 2: Moving: Implement new steps to achieve a complete culture change, including training
3.
programs and recruitment/outreach.
Step 3: Refreezing: Consolidate the new culture, rewarding positive behaviour, and integrating
changes into policies and practices.
3. Regulatory Challenges



South African Legislation: Diverse and complex, reflecting a move from apartheid to democracy.
Laws aim to ensure equity, eliminate unfair discrimination, and promote equality.
Key legislation:

o The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (No. 108 of 1996).
o Labour Relations Act (No. 66 of 1995) (LRA).
o Basic Conditions of Employment Act (No. 75 of 1997) (BCEA).
o Employment Equity Act (No. 55 of 1998) (EEA).
o Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act (No. 53 of 2003) (B-BBEE).
3.3.1 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (No. 108 of 1996):
o
o
Foundation of democracy, enshrining human rights and the Bill of Rights.
Primary rights relevant to HRM:
1. Equality: Full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms. Promotes achievement of equality,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
legislative and other measures designed to protect or advance persons or categories of persons,
disadvantaged by unfair discrimination may be taken.
Freedom of expression.
Freedom of association.
Right to fair labour practices.
Right to choose trade, occupation, or profession freely.
Right to engage freely in economic activity and pursue a livelihood anywhere in the national
territory.
Right to use language and participate in the cultural life of choice.


Non-discrimination clause: The state may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against
anyone on one or more grounds, including race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or
social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language,
birth or any other arbitrary ground.
3.3.2 Employment Equity Act (No. 55 of 1998) (EEA):
o
o
Aims to eliminate unfair discrimination and promote employment equity.
Unfair discrimination is specifically prohibited on these grounds:

o
Race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, family responsibility, ethnic or social origin, colour,
sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, political opinion, culture, language,
birth or any other arbitrary ground.
Key provisions:


o
No person may unfairly discriminate, directly or indirectly.
It is not unfair discrimination to:
 Take affirmative action measures.
 Distinguish or exclude persons based on inherent requirements of a job.
 Harassment of an employee is a form of unfair discrimination.
 Difference in terms and conditions of employment between employees of the same employer
performing the same or substantially the same work or work of equal value that is directly or
indirectly based on any one or more of the grounds listed is unfair discrimination.
Employers' obligations:

o
Employment Equity Plan: Employers must consult unions and employees to ensure a plan is accepted
by everybody.
 Analysis: Analyse employment policies, practices, and procedures to identify barriers.
 Measures: Implement affirmative action measures.
 Monitoring: Monitor and evaluate progress.
 Reporting: Display a summary of the EEA in all languages.
Steps for employer to achieve employment equity:
1. Assign responsibility: Appoint a senior manager to drive the process.
2. Communication: Ensure employees are aware of the following: content, anti-discrimination issues,
proposed process, advantages, and commitment to positive outcomes.
3. Methods: Use various methods (pamphlets, newsletters, workshops, videos, training sessions).
4. Baseline: Get baseline data on designated groups and levels.
5. Formulate measures: Implement:







Appointment of members from designated groups.
Increasing the pool of available candidates.
Training and development of people from designated groups.
Promotion of people from designated groups.
Retention of people from designated groups.
Reasonable accommodation for people with disabilities.
Remuneration and benefits.
6. Duration: Plan must be for one to five years.
7. Progress: Make plans for allocated resources, identified and implemented projects.
8. Evaluate: Evaluate progress at structured and regular intervals.
9. Review: Review and revise the plan.
10. Final Step: Submit an Employment Equity Report Form EEA2.

3.3.3 Labour Relations Act (No. 66 of 1995) (LRA):
o
o
Does not explicitly regulate unfair discrimination, but prohibits unfair labour practices relating to
discrimination.
Key provisions related to discrimination:


Right to freedom of association: Employees or persons seeking employment may not be
discriminated against or victimised for joining a trade union or participating in union activities.
 Workplace forums: If a workplace forum is established, issues related to discrimination and
affirmative action are discussed.
 Dispute resolution: Provides mechanisms for resolving disputes regarding unfair discrimination.
 Automatically unfair dismissals: Dismissals based on various grounds (e.g., discrimination,
participation in protected disclosures, unprotected strikes where LRA permits dismissal).
 Collective agreements, trade unions, and employers’ organisations: LRA promotes collective
bargaining and allows agreements to address discrimination.
3.3.4 The Basic Conditions of Employment Act (No. 75 of 1997) (BCEA):

o Sets minimum employment conditions.
o Prohibits discrimination related to family responsibility, HIV status, and pregnancy.
3.3.5 Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act (No. 53 of 2003) (B-BBEE):
o
o
o
Aims to transform SA's economy, increasing Black people's ownership and management control.
Seven elements: Ownership, management control, employment equity, skills development, preferential
procurement, enterprise development, and socio-economic development.
Organizations must enhance the existing employment equity plan to empower designated groups.
4. Sexual Harassment




Definition: Any unwanted conduct of a sexual nature that is intended to affect or interfere with a person's work
performance or meant to create an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment.
Prevalence: High incidence of sexual harassment in SA workplaces.
Legal Framework: SA Constitution, EEA, and LRA prohibit sexual harassment.
The Code of Good Practice on the Handling of Sexual Harassment Cases in the Workplace:
o
o

Unwanted sexual conduct that violates rights and is a barrier to equity.
Factors to consider when determining if an act constitutes sexual harassment:
 Whether the harassment is prohibited grounds of sex and/or gender and/or sexual orientation.
 Whether the sexual conduct was unwelcome.
 The nature and extent of the sexual conduct.
 The impact of the sexual conduct on the employee.
Two forms of sexual harassment:
1. Quid pro quo sexual harassment: A form of harassment that occurs when a supervisor makes unwelcome
2.
sexual advances towards someone in exchange for workplace benefits.
Hostile environment harassment: A form of harassment that occurs when unwelcome sexual conduct
interferes with job performance or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment.

Measuring and Researching Sexual Harassment:

o Difficult to get accurate data.
o Methods: Grievance data, oral complaints, exit interviews, survey data.
Different forms of sexual harassment:
o
o
o

Physical: Brushing up, touching a person's hair, forced fondling.
Sexual: Sexual stories or jokes, whistling at someone, repeatedly asking a person out.
Non-verbal: Staring at someone, sending e-mail messages of a sexual nature, sexually suggestive
calendars/pictures/themes or posters.
HR's Responsibility:
o
Three potential challenges HR faces:
o
 Identifying/recognising the characteristics of sexual harassers.
 Drawing up a good sexual harassment policy.
 Providing effective sexual harassment training.
Identifying characteristics of sexual harassers:
o
 Sexual harassers often display traits like narcissism, psychopathy, and machiavellianism.
 They tend to be manipulative, lack empathy, and justify their inappropriate behaviour.
Drawing up a good sexual harassment prevention policy:








Policy statement: Clear statement of commitment to zero tolerance.
Definition of sexual harassment: Broad and clear, with examples.
Examples of prohibited conduct: Explicitly state what constitutes harassment.
Confidentiality: Ensure confidentiality for all involved.
Duties and responsibilities: Clearly define roles for all parties.
No retaliation: Policy should state no retaliation against those reporting.
Complaint procedure: Clear, step-by-step process for reporting and investigating.
Investigation procedure: Detailed steps, including documentation and interviews.
o
 Disciplinary measures and sanctions: Outline disciplinary actions for offenders.
 Implementation: How the policy will be communicated and maintained.
 Monitoring and evaluation: Indicators for effectiveness.
Providing effective sexual harassment training:



Goal: To eliminate unacceptable behaviours and promote a respectful workplace.
Focus: Legal definitions, "unwelcome" sexual advances, organisational prevention policy,
management support, individual responsibility, reporting procedures, handling complaints.
Methods: Discussions, role-playing, case studies, videos, and guest speakers.
Summary of Key Concepts:



Rapid diversification of the South African workforce requires organisations to harness energies, talents, and differences.
Diversity education and awareness training enhance understanding and appreciation of unique characteristics.
Diversity management programs should:
1. Hire a diverse workforce.
2. Enforce policies and laws on discrimination.
3. Learn to value and manage employees' differences.



Affirmative action programs identify areas of underrepresentation and set targets for recruitment and selection.
Government legislation has greatly affected employment processes, ensuring fair treatment and equal opportunity.
Sexual harassment is a serious HR issue, requiring clear policy and proactive approaches.
Chapter 4: Strategic HR Planning and
Research
I. Core Concepts and Definitions
Strategic Human Resource Planning (SHRP) is the process by which:




Organisational goals (from mission statements and organisational plans) are translated into HR objectives.
It ensures the organisation is neither over- nor understaffed.
It ensures employees with the appropriate talents, skills, and desire are available for the right jobs at the right times.
It is generally based on a close working relationship between HR staff and line managers.
Key Definitions:


Human Resource Planning (HRP): The process of anticipating and providing for the movement of people into, within,
and out of an organisation to achieve the best fit between employees and jobs.
Planning Horizon: Companies set objectives expressed in terms of time frames.

o Short-range objectives: Achieved in one year or shorter.
o Intermediate objectives: Achieved in 2–4 years.
o Long-range objectives: Achieved in 5–15 years.
Types of HR Planning Linkages:
1. Input linkages: HR information is made available before or during the strategic planning process.
2. Decision inclusion linkages: HR staff are directly or indirectly involved in the organisation’s strategic planning
process (e.g., an HR executive sitting in during a strategy session).
3. Review and reaction linkages: HR staff respond to a proposed or final strategic plan. The plan may be
reviewed based on HR flexibility or desire.
II. The Strategic HR Planning Process (4.7)
The SHRP activity is typically split into five sequential phases: (1) establish mission/values, (2) external
analysis, (3) internal analysis, (4) strategy formulation, (5) strategy implementation, and (6) evaluation.
Step
Description
Key Components
Capture underlying business
1. Establish
Defines the purpose, long-term
philosophy, clarify long-term
mission, vision and direction, and ethical conduct of
direction, establish enduring
values (4.7.1)
the organisation.
beliefs and principles.
2. Conduct an
external analysis
(4.7.2)
Assesses changes in the operating
environment that may impact the Opportunity and Threat (OT)
organisation (e.g., economic
analysis. Conduct environmental
factors, technology, markets,
scanning.
competitors).
3. Conduct an
internal analysis
(4.7.3)
Looks internally at strengths and
Strength and Weakness (SW)
weaknesses (SW). Focuses on
analysis. Analyze firm's
employee capabilities,
competencies, workforce culture,
performance, and current HR
and employee characteristics.
supply/demand.
4. Forecasting
demand and supply
(4.7.4 & 4.7.5)
Forecast demand for employees.
Determines the total manpower
Forecast supply of employees.
requirement (demand) and analyzes
Balance supply and demand
internal and external sources of
(dealing with shortages or
labour (supply).
surpluses).
5. Strategy
formulation and
implementation
(4.7.6)
Developing the HR strategy that
aligns vertically and
horizontally with the corporate
and business strategies, often
using a SWOT analysis.
Design structure, systems, etc..
Reconcile supply and demand via
hiring, downsizings, etc..
6. Evaluation
Ensures alignment and evaluates
benchmarking efforts.
Evaluate benchmarking efforts,
maintain human capital metrics,
utilize balanced scorecard.
Forecasting Methods (4.7.4)
Forecasting human resource demand and supply involves both quantitative and qualitative techniques.
Type
Method
Description and Key Characteristics
Quantitative
Moving
average
Averages HR data from recent periods to project future needs.
Simple, but seasonal/cyclical patterns may be ignored.
Quantitative
Trends
projection
A straight line is plotted from past to future to predict HR
demand. Easy to understand by managers, but relies on past
data.
Quantitative Regression
Mathematical technique that can include many variables (e.g.,
Type
Method
Description and Key Characteristics
output, product mix, per capita productivity). Complex,
requires large sample sizes.
Quantitative
Qualitative
Actuarial
models
Relate turnover to factors like age and seniority. Reflects
the past.
Delphi
technique
A group of experts exchange several rounds of estimates
anonymously. Can resolve key decision makers in the process
and focuses on what is expected or desired in the future.
Highly subjective.
Nominal
Qualitative group
technique
A small group of experts meet face-to-face, following a
procedure that involves open discussion and private
assessments. Group discussions can facilitate exchange of
ideas and greater acceptance of results.
III. Importance, Roles, and Pitfalls of SHRP
Importance of SHRP (4.5)





Linking HR programs and policies to organisational objectives and facilitating strategic success.
Integrating HR activities ensures that programs will work better and achieve desired outcomes.
It allows HR to anticipate needs, such as recruiting experienced talent well in advance.
It helps improve planning and control of personnel-related costs (e.g., turnover, relocation).
It is vital for dealing with major changes, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and new external competitive conditions.
Responsibilities for SHRP (4.4)
The responsibility for SHRP rests primarily with HR managers at all levels, working closely and liaising
with line management.
HR Unit Responsibilities
Manager Responsibilities
Participate in the strategic planning
process.
Identify supply and demand needs for each
division/department.
Design the HR planning data systems.
Review/discuss HR planning information with
HR specialists.
Compile and analyze data from managers on Integrate the HR plan with departmental
staffing needs.
plans.
Common Pitfalls in SHRP (4.8)
1. The identity crises: HR planners face challenges when organizational politics and ambiguous regulations clash with
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
systems/models.
Top management support: SHRP must have the full support of management to be viable.
Size of effort: Many SHRP programs fail because they start too complex, too soon.
Coordination with other functions: It is essential that the process is coordinated with other management and HR
functions.
Integration with company plans: HR plans must be derived from organisational plans; plans made in isolation will not
serve any purpose.
Non-involvement of operating managers: Line management must be closely involved in the SHRP process.
The technique trap: Over-reliance on sophisticated or technical methods developed by HR specialists.
IV. HR Research and Methods
HR Research is the collection and investigation of facts related to HR problems in order to eliminate or
reduce those problems.
Types of Research (4.9.1)


Basic research: Undirected, basic knowledge for its own sake, often conducted by universities.
Applied research: Conducted to solve a particular problem; results may be put to immediate use.
Major Research Methods (4.10)
1. Surveys (4.10.1): By far the most common form of HR research. They include wage surveys, job satisfaction surveys,
and attitude/morale surveys.
o
o
Factors contributing to job satisfaction: The job itself, co-worker relations, good supervision, and opportunity
to grow.
Factors detracting from job satisfaction: Poor supervision, interpersonal conflicts, poor work environment,
poor pay, and poor organisation's success.
2. Exit interviews (4.10.2): Conducted with employees leaving voluntarily to gain valuable information about the work
3.
4.
environment and management.
Historical study (4.10.3): Tracking data over time (e.g., absenteeism or turnover) to find patterns and gain insight.
Controlled experiments (4.10.4): Used to test variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships by comparing an
experimental group with a control group.
HR Metrics and Cost-Benefit Analysis


HR Metrics (4.9.4): Used to calculate the success or failure of workforce-related HR projects and related costs/impact.
o Diagnostic measures: Simple calculations used for staffing and turnover.
o Evaluative measures: Measures focusing mainly on organisational effectiveness.
o Human Capital Metrics: Focuses on the value and impact of human capital on the whole organisation.
Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) (4.12): Used to measure and evaluate HR activities (recruitment, selection, training) in
economic terms. Costs commonly analyzed include employee turnover, absenteeism, and labor contracts.
CHAPTER 5: JOB DESIGN AND JOB ANALYSIS
I. Fundamental Concepts



Work is defined as the effort directed towards producing or accomplishing particular results.
Job is the grouping of tasks, duties, and responsibilities that constitute the total work assignment for an employee.
Job design is the manipulation of the content, functions, and relationships of jobs to achieve both organisational goals
and the personal needs of individual job holders.
II. Organisational Context and Workflow
Workflow Analysis and Re-engineering

Workflow analysis studies how work moves through an organization to determine the activities (tasks and jobs)
required to achieve desired outputs (goods and services).

Re-engineering processes aims to improve activities, sometimes requiring the use of work teams and reducing
complexity. It involves three key steps:
1. Rethink: Examine how the current organization of work affects the satisfaction of employees and customers.
2. Redesign: Determine how jobs are put together and how the workflow functions.
3. Revisit: Use new technology to improve production and customer satisfaction.
Organisational Factors
Job design is influenced by external and internal factors:


External Factors: Technology available, labour market profile, changes in the environment (e.g., retrenchments and
downsizing), and legal constraints.
Internal Factors: Workplace culture and climate, organisational design, management styles, and technology available.
III. Approaches to Job Design
Job design approaches have evolved from traditional specialisation to motivation-intensive and
sociotechnical approaches.
1. Job Specialisation (Specialisation-Intensive Jobs)



Characterized by jobs with very few tasks that are repeated often.
Management used a three-step process: determining the best way to perform the job, hiring individuals with matching
abilities, and training them in the prescribed way.
Problems of Overspecialisation often lead to employee dissatisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover. Specific problems
include:
o
o
o
o
o
Repetition: Employees become quickly bored and unchallenged.
Mechanical pacing: Employees are restricted by equipment or assembly lines, preventing them from
regulating their own pace.
No end product: Employees often only handle a small piece of the product and lack pride or enthusiasm for
their work.
Little social interaction: Constant attention to the task makes interacting with co-workers difficult.
No input: Employees lack personal control over how they perform their work.
2. Motivation-Intensive Jobs (Job Enrichment)
This approach aims to motivate employees and improve job satisfaction.

Job Dimensions: Jobs can be measured by two dimensions:

o Job scope: The number and scope of tasks performed.
o Job depth: The degree of decision-making, planning, and control the employee has over the job.
Techniques for Enrichment:
o
o
o
Job Rotation: Shifting an employee from one job to another periodically (horizontal movement). This provides
variety and helps solve the problem of repetitive jobs, but the job content itself does not change.
Job Enlargement: Increasing the number or variety of tasks performed by an employee (horizontal
expansion/scope). It reduces boredom but typically does not increase the job's depth.
Job Enrichment: Enhancing a job by adding more meaningful tasks and duties (vertical expansion/depth). This
involves giving employees decision-making authority (discretion) and self-control. Successful enrichment
leads to greater job satisfaction and less absenteeism/grievances.
3. Sociotechnical Approach

Based on research focusing on the combined social and technical systems of a workplace.

The most common application is self-managed work teams (or high-performance work teams). These teams control
their own work, schedules, and training.
IV. Newer Organisational Approaches

Total Quality Management (TQM): A philosophy aimed at the continual improvement of quality of products/services to
meet customer expectations.
o
o
o
TQM requires that quality is seen as a key part of every employee's job.
TQM implementation requires empowerment and management support.
Pitfalls of TQM include improper implementation, lack of support, and insufficient focus on results.
V. Contemporary Job Design Issues
Work Schedules and Locations
The COVID-19 pandemic significantly increased the use of flexible work arrangements.



Flexitime: Allows employees to determine their daily work hours, provided they work the required core hours.
Advantages include reduced absenteeism, improved morale, and increased productivity.
Compressed workweeks: Schedules with fewer than the traditional five working days a week, often involving longer
hours per day (e.g., four 10-hour days).
Telecommuting: Using electronic techniques to work at home or from a remote location.
o

Good candidates for telecommuting have little need for face-to-face contact, are self-starters, perform tasks
independently, and work for a trusting supervisor.
Virtual offices: Arrangements where employees are assigned office space for a day or carry their own workplace
(mobile).
Environmental and Technological Factors



Office Environment: Affects productivity and absenteeism. Factors include light, noise, furniture, and temperature.
Ergonomics: Designing equipment and systems within work environments to ensure they are easy and efficient for
employees to use. Focus areas include posture, proper lifting techniques (the back), and repetitive motion issues (the
hand).
Robotics: While robots handle repetitive and non-creative tasks, the implication is that employees must be re-skilled to
handle creative and interpersonal duties.
VI. Productivity Measures
Productivity is a measure of output relative to input (labour, material, and capital). A business must strive
for high productivity to remain successful.

Three major components of productivity:
1. Utilization: Ensuring resources are used to their maximum potential.
2. Efficiency: Measured by maintaining a satisfactory relationship between cost and benefits ("Doing things
right").
3. Effectiveness: Measured by satisfying customer needs ("Doing the right things").
VII. Job Analysis (JA)
Nature and Purpose

Job Analysis (JA) is the systematic way to gather and analyse information about the content, context, and human
requirements of jobs.

It is the basis for key HR practices like recruitment, selection, job evaluation, and compensation.
Components of a Job (Hierarchy of Work Activities)
Work can be broken down into hierarchical elements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Job family: A category where similar occupations are grouped together (e.g., training managers).
Occupation: Jobs combined across organizations based on skills and efforts.
Job: A group of positions that are similar in tasks, duties, and elements.
Position: The combination of all duties required of one person.
Duty: Several distinct tasks performed by an individual.
Task: An identifiable unit of work activity (e.g., processing payroll forms).
Element: The smallest practical unit of work activity (e.g., signing pay cheques).
Job Analysis Programme Implementation: Information Collection
Information collection methods are categorized as general or specific.
General Methods:





Site observation: Observing people performing tasks to gather data on timing, frequency, and equipment used; useful
for manual jobs.
Work sampling: Sampling the content of a job instead of observing all behaviour; useful for highly repetitive jobs.
Interviews: Used to clarify duties and responsibilities, often with job incumbents or supervisors.
Diaries: Job-holders keep records of their work activities; useful for tracking time and effort, especially for difficult-toobserve jobs.
Questionnaires: The quickest and most efficient method for gathering structured information.
Specific Methods (Structured Techniques):

The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ): A highly sophisticated technique that measures 194 job elements rated by
degree of employee involvement. These elements fall into 27 job dimensions, which group into six major divisions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Information Input
Mental Processes
Work Output
Relationships
Work Situation and Job Context
Other Job Characteristics
Functional Job Analysis (FJA): Analyses job content in relation to three work domains: Things, Data, and People.
End Products and Uses of Job Analysis
Job analysis yields two end products:
1. Job Description (JD): Tells us more about the job (tasks, responsibilities, and duties).
2. Job Specification (JS): Tells us more about the person (Skills, Knowledge, and Abilities – SKAs).
Uses of Job Descriptions (JD) and Job Specifications (JS):




Recruitment and selection
Onboarding/orientation and training
Job design
Job evaluation, compensation, and wage/salary surveys



Health and safety
Performance management and appraisal
Outplacement
Elements of Job Descriptions:




Job Identification: Includes the title, location, supervisor, job status, and pay grade.
Job Summary: A brief, three-line description emphasizing the major function or objective of the job.
Job duties and responsibilities: The detailed heart of the JD, describing the problem and specific tasks.
Job specification: Should include SKAs and minimum qualifications.
VIII. Job Analysis Maintenance



Job analysis must be updated when changes occur, such as organisational restructuring, downsizing, or technological
change.
HR departments should continually update job descriptions, especially during a pandemic or disaster, as employee
duties and workloads might change.
Methods for updating JA include conducting annual reviews or repeating the full job analysis every few years.
Chapter 6: Recruitment and Selection Study
Notes
I. Core Definitions and Context




Recruitment: The process of acquiring applicants who are available and qualified to fill vacant positions in the
organization.
Selection: The process of choosing from a group of applicants the individual best suited for a particular position.
Labour Market: The geographical area from which employees are recruited for a specific job. An organization's
recruitment efforts must compare favourably with those of its competitors.
Employee Recruitment Activities: These activities lead to the organization's need for additional labour, which then
flows into recruitment activities and selection activities (Figure 6.1).
II. Recruitment and Selection in the Environment
A. Legal and Environmental Considerations




Organisations must comply with legal requirements, especially the Employment Equity Act (EEA), when setting
recruitment and selection policies.
The EEA prohibits direct or indirect discrimination against any person on various grounds (e.g., race, gender, sexual
orientation), unless it is based on an inherent requirement of the job.
Affirmative action and employment equity are key environmental factors influencing recruitment strategy.
Pandemics and National Disasters: These may continuously restrict and affect recruitment and selection. The COVID-19
pandemic specifically led to the adoption of virtual interviewing and online advertising.
B. Workforce Diversity and Generations


Recruiting good applicants requires adapting to diverse demographic and economic factors in South Africa.
Generational Differences (In Focus section): Understanding these differences helps managers recruit and motivate
staff.
o
o
Traditionalists (born before 1945): Value stability, loyalty, and expect an employer to care for them.
Baby Boomers (born 1946–1964): Value career success, personal fulfillment, and quality of life; tend to
communicate one-on-one (e.g., meetings).
o
o
o
Generation X (born 1965–1979): Value work-life balance, are often financially savvy, and prefer direct
feedback via e-mail or in-person meetings.
Millennials (born 1980–1995): Known as Gen Y or Echo Boomers; are tech-savvy, demand immediate feedback,
and are entrepreneurial and goal-oriented. They prefer multi-tasking and are comfortable with technology.
Linkers (born from 1996 onwards): Known as Generation Z or iGen; grew up surrounded by technology, value
flexibility, and prefer informal, quick methods of communication (like texts or social media).
III. The Recruitment Process Steps (Figure 6.2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Identify the vacancies to be filled.
Gather/use job analysis information and obtain inputs from the manager/supervisor.
Compile the job requirements based on the job analysis and obtained information.
Use internal and/or external sources and methods of recruitment (influenced by organizational strategy, policies,
budget, and external factors).
Pool of suitable applicants (talent pool) is created, and the selection process commences.
IV. Recruitment Strategies: Internal vs. External
Recruitment begins by deciding whether to fill a vacancy internally or externally.
A. Internal Recruitment
Advantages
Disadvantages
Other Notes
Increases the morale
of current employees
Unhealthy competition
among existing
employees
Glass Ceiling: Organisational practices
that prevent women from advancing to
executive levels.
Knowledge of the
person and employee
records exist
Morale problem for
those not promoted
Peter Principle: Employees may be
promoted beyond their level of
competence.
Strong management
Chain effect of
development programme
promotion is possible
is needed
Need to hire only at
entry level
Employee relocation: Moving employees to
different locations; complex, costly,
and can affect family life.
The risk of employees becoming unhappy
Inbreeding resulting in
or less effective in a new role is lower
no new ideas.
than hiring externally.
Usually faster and
less expensive
Employee becomes
productive sooner
Little or no
orientation is needed
B. External Recruitment
Advantages
Disadvantages
Other Notes
Destroys incentive of current
Applicant pool is bigger employees to strive for
promotion.
Often necessary when
internal applicants lack
necessary skills.
New ideas and contacts
Preferred by organizations
The individual's ability to fit
Advantages
Disadvantages
are brought into the
organization
in with the rest of the
organization is unknown.
Reduces internal
fighting
Increased adjustment problems.
Minimises Peter
Principle
Takes longer for the individual
to become productive.
Other Notes
seeking diversity.
Comprehensive orientation is
required.
V. Recruitment Methods
A. Internal Recruitment Methods

Job Posting (6.5.1): Notifying employees of vacancies using methods like bulletin boards, e-mail, telephone, or intranet.
o
o
Must be handled professionally; supervisors should receive advance notification.
Job posting advantages: Easy access, 24-hour availability, electronic paperwork, and immediate notification.
B. External Recruitment Methods

Direct Applications (6.5.2): Applications received by mail, in person, or internet.

o Often the largest source of applicants for non-professional jobs. Low recruitment cost, but high screening costs.
Employee Referrals: One of the best means of securing applicants; quick, inexpensive, and reliable.



o Must establish nepotism policies (favouritism shown to relatives/friends) to ensure fairness.
University/School Campus Recruiting: Used for hiring graduates; often involves pre-screening programs.
Private Employment/Recruitment Agencies: Agencies charge a fee (often 30–50% of the executive's annual salary in
South Africa). They save the organization time and money.
Advertising (6.5.3): Successful advertisements attract suitable applicants and follow the AIDA principle (Attract
attention, Interest, Desire, Action).
o
Advertising Types (Table 6.3):


E-recruiting: Online, fast, cheap, adapts to specific needs, but may not reach all potential candidates
and is subject to privacy concerns.
 Newspapers: Flexible in size/cost, easy access for potential applicants, but relatively expensive and
may not reach the target audience.
 Direct Mail: Most personal form of advertising, allows customization, but limits reach to existing
expertise.
 Journals/Magazines: Reaches a specialized audience, high-quality printing, but has a wide circulation
and long lead time.
 Radio and Television: Wide audience, high level of creation/attraction, but expensive and may not
reach the correct target audience.
Re-recruiting: Strategic approach maintaining relationships with former employees and organization alumni.
C. E-Recruitment and Technology (6.5.4)




Online recruitment has progressed significantly, driven by the need to attract the Generation Y group.
Strategies for Successful E-Recruiting: Define corporate culture, develop an employer brand, use interactive selfassessment tools, organize job postings logically, and update job postings frequently.
Advantages: Cost-effective, finds candidates quickly, reaches a larger pool.
Disadvantages: Too many unqualified applicants, candidates may provide false information, and competition is
increased.

Technology Tools: Organisations use Applicant Tracking Systems (ATSs), HRIS, and social media platforms (e.g., LinkedIn,
Facebook) for recruitment.
VI. Hiring Alternatives (6.6)




Alternatives offer temporary staffing solutions without hiring permanent employees.
Assigning Overtime (6.6.1): Attractive, temporary solution that uses existing employees, often giving them additional
pay/training.
Temporary Help (6.6.2): Hired for seasonal needs or unforeseen absences; typically low start-up cost.
Leasing Employees (6.6.3): A third-party leasing organization becomes the employer of record, handling HR functions
(payroll, benefits, etc.).
o
o
Advantages to Client: Reduced HR burden, cost savings.
Disadvantages to Client: Potential lack of loyalty from leased employees, risk of poor customer relations if the
firm does not match the culture.
VII. The Selection Process (6.11)
The selection process is a multiple hurdles selection technique used to choose the best applicant from the
talent pool.
A. The Selection Framework (Figure 6.3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Organizational goals and objectives.
Job design.
Job descriptions and specifications (KSAOs).
Recruitment efforts.
Selection instruments/techniques.
B. Steps in the Selection Process (6.12 & Figure 6.4)
1. Initial Screening (6.12.1): Reduces the pool of applicants by reviewing CVs, applications, and minimum qualifications.
o
o
HR must check for "red flags" (e.g., time gaps in employment, vague information, salary inconsistencies).
CV Tracking Systems (ATSs) are increasingly used to screen and sort applications using keywords.
2. Application Blanks (6.12.2): Formal records comparing applicant data against job specifications.
o
A weighted application blank (WAB) assigns a score value to certain information (e.g., job history, salary) to
predict success.
3. Interviews (6.12.3): Determines if the applicant can perform the job, if they are motivated, and if they fit the
organization.
o
o
o
Interviews often have low reliability due to biases.
A Structured, Objective Process is recommended to reduce bias. Elements include documenting procedures,
standardizing the format, scoring answers, and training interviewers.
Types of Interviews (Figure 6.6):




o
Structured/Directive: Standardized questions based on predetermined job-related criteria.
Unstructured: Questions evolve during the interview; highly subjective.
Mixed: Combination of structured and unstructured questions.
Behavioural: Asks about past actions in specific employment-related situations (e.g., "Tell me about a
time you had to confront a team member").
 Stress: Attempts to make the applicant uncomfortable to observe handling pressure.
Realistic Job Preview (RJP): Provides applicants with a realistic picture of the job to reduce future
disappointment and dissatisfaction.
4. Pre-employment Testing (6.12.4): Measures attributes relevant to job performance.
o
o
o
Key requirements for tests: Reliability (consistency) and Validity (measures what it claims to measure, and
correlates to job performance).
Testing must be non-discriminatory and comply with the EEA.
Assessment Centres (6.12.5): Evaluate managerial potential using simulated exercises (e.g., in-basket, roleplaying, leaderless group discussions).
5. Reference Checks (6.12.5): Increasing in importance to verify background and credentials.
o
o
Methods include telephone checks (most reliable), online research (LinkedIn, Facebook), and checking
previous employers.
HR should verify facts (job titles, dates, salary) and avoid asking illegal questions.
6. Medical Examination (6.12.6): Only legal if justified by the job's inherent requirements, legislation, or employee
benefits. HIV testing is strictly regulated.
7. The Selection Decision (6.13): Choosing between compensatory selection (low scores in one area can be offset by high
scores in another) or multiple hurdles selection (applicant must pass each stage).
o
Figure 6.7 illustrates the consequences of correct and incorrect selection decisions (rejecting/accepting
qualified/unqualified candidates).
VIII. HR Responsibility and Record Keeping



HR’s Role (6.9): The selection process is typically centralized in the HR department to ensure standardization,
compliance, and objective decision-making. HR specialists are experts in the technical aspects of selection (tests,
interviews).
Line Managers' Role: Involved in job design, defining requirements, conducting the second/third interviews, and
assessing the applicant’s skills.
Record Keeping (6.14): Organizations must keep a complete set of records pertaining to recruitment and selection to
comply with the EEA and Labour Relations Act. Documents must prove non-discrimination at every step.
Chapter 7: Employee Onboarding, Motivation
and Retention Study Notes
I. Employee Onboarding and Orientation
A. Definitions and Distinctions


Onboarding is the process that begins before the employee joins and typically lasts for several months or longer. It is a
lengthy process aimed at developing employee behaviors and knowledge that ensure long-term success and
commitment. Onboarding transforms "outsiders" into "insiders".
Orientation is the process of integrating the new employee, familiarizing them with job requirements, colleagues, and
the work environment. It is a shorter time frame than onboarding and is a component of the overall onboarding
process. Orientation is also known as induction or socialisation.
B. Importance and Purpose



Effective orientation/onboarding reduces stress, uncertainty, and anxiety for new employees.
It ensures the employee understands how they fit into the organization, including its goals, policies, and procedures.
It helps employees achieve a sense of belonging and clarifies basic job responsibilities and expected performance
patterns.

Negative effects of poor orientation include staff turnover, decreased motivation, reduced morale, and lower
productivity.
C. Feldman's Three-Phased Model for Orientation (Figure 7.1)
Phase I: Anticipatory Socialisation: Encompasses all the learning that occurs before a new
employee joins the organization.
o
o
o
o
Realism about the organisation: Gaining an accurate picture of the organization's goals and climate.
Realism about the job: Gaining an accurate picture of job duties.
Congruence of skills and abilities: Ensuring skills align with those needed to perform the duties.
Congruence of needs and values: Ensuring personal needs/values align with what the organization can provide.
Phase II: Encounter: The employee sees the organization as it truly is, and initial shifts in values,
skills, and attitudes occur.
o
o
o
o
o
Management of outside-life conflicts (e.g., scheduling, work-family balance).
Management of intergroup role conflicts (adapting to demands from different groups).
Role definition (clarifying priorities and duties).
Initiation to the task (learning new tasks).
Initiation to the group (establishing new interpersonal relationships).
Phase III: Change and Acquisition ('Settling in'): Long-lasting changes take place.
o
o
o
Resolution of role demands.
Task mastery (mastering skills for the job).
Adjustment to group norms and values.
Successful Outcomes include: Carrying out role assignments dependably, innovation, general
satisfaction, and job involvement.
D. Implementation and Timing



Delivery Methods (Five Basic Approaches): Verbal, Written, Audiovisual, Systems-based (e.g., HRIS/web-based), and
Digital (using platforms like MS Teams, crucial during remote working).
Timing: Orientation sessions should generally not exceed two hours at a time. The orientation period should be linked
to the time it takes to become effective (often three months). Follow-up should continue for approximately two
months.
Designing the Programme: Planning should start three to six months before implementation. The content should be
divided into 'need-to-know' (essential information for the job) and 'nice-to-know' (general information).
E. Responsibility and Evaluation



Responsibility: The organization's size determines who is involved. The employee's supervisor is usually the most
important person, but the HR department, head of department, mentors/buddies, and staff representatives also play
roles. HR is mainly responsible for overall monitoring and support.
Who should be oriented? New employees, transferred/promoted employees, and all current employees (if significant
organizational changes occur).
Evaluation Measures: Labour turnover statistics, absenteeism, accidents, grievances, surveys, and course evaluation
forms can be used to measure success.
II. Employee Motivation
Motivation is the "engine" that drives human resources, giving direction to behaviour and allowing
individuals to persist through obstacles.
A. Key Motivational Theories
1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A five-level hierarchy where lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs can
motivate.
o
o
o
o
o
o
Physical needs (basic survival).
Safety needs (job security).
Social needs (belonging, peer group acceptance).
Self-esteem needs (job title, recognition, responsibility).
Self-actualisation needs (achieving potential, challenging creative jobs).
(Related Theory: Alderfer's ERG Theory condenses Maslow into Existence, Relatedness, and Growth needs).
2. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Motivation-Hygiene Theory): Satisfaction and dissatisfaction stem from separate
factors.
o
o
Hygiene Factors (Extrinsic): Relate to the job context (e.g., salary, working conditions, company policy,
schedules). These prevent dissatisfaction, but their presence does not create satisfaction.
Motivator Factors (Intrinsic): Relate to the job content (e.g., achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth,
the work itself). These actively lead to job satisfaction and improved performance.
3. McClelland's Achievement Motivation Theory: Emphasizes three main needs:
o
o
o
Need to achieve (nAch): Focus on performance improvement and tangible results.
Need for affiliation (nAff): Focus on human companionship and interpersonal relationships.
Need for power (nPow): Desire to obtain and exercise control.
4. Goal-setting Theory (Locke): Performance improves when individuals have specific, measurable goals that are
perceived as difficult but achievable. Feedback on progress is essential.
5. Positive Reinforcement: The concept of providing valued rewards for desired behaviour (based on the Law of Effect).
B. Motivating vs. Demotivating Factors (HR in Focus)


Motivating factors include leading by example, being approachable (listening to grievances), encouraging work-life
balance, offering performance incentives, and nurturing career development.
Demotivating factors include abusing power, distancing oneself from employees, offloading duties, claiming credit, and
scapegoating.
III. The Psychological Contract
A. Definition and Nature


The psychological contract is the unwritten mutual expectations between employees and employers about the nature
of their work relationship.
It includes implicit promises and obligations that are dynamic and change due to factors like societal changes,
technology, and the work environment.
B. Violations and Change




Violations (when expectations are unmet) can negatively impact job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
retention.
Types of violation: Reneging (knowingly breaking a promise) or Incongruence (differing understandings of obligations).
Old Contract (Traditional): Based on loyalty, hard work, and job security (employees seen as 'children').
New Contract (Modern): Focuses on mutual benefit, skill development, and employability (employees seen as 'adults').
Job security is rarely guaranteed.
IV. Employee Retention
Retention focuses on retaining talent and is closely linked to the obligations established in the psychological
contract.
A. Obligations and Expectations


Employee Obligations: Include working contracted hours, delivering quality work, being loyal, behaving correctly, and
potentially going beyond the job description.
Employer Obligations: Include providing adequate onboarding and training, ensuring fairness in selection/appraisal,
equitable pay, work-life balance flexibility, and job security.
B. Retention Determinants (Four Broad Areas)
1. Compensation and benefits: Includes internal and external equity, variable pay/bonuses, share options, health benefits,
2.
3.
4.
and retirement benefits.
Organisational environment: Includes open communication, organizational support/commitment, fairness, security,
and organizational reputation.
Work/development environment: Includes empowerment, advancement opportunities, mentorship, recognition, role
clarity, teamwork, challenging work, and pleasant daily work experiences.
Work-life balance: Includes flexibility in working hours, geographic location, options for remote work (especially since
COVID-19), and extra vacation/annual leave.
C. Ranking of Factors
Employees and HR managers rank retention factors differently:


HR Managers prioritize: Training, career perspectives, financial rewards, performance management, and
communication.
Employees prioritize: Career development opportunities (ranked highest by both), social atmosphere, job content,
financial rewards, and work-life balance.
12. Occupational Health and Safety Act, No. 85 of 1993 (OHSA) (12.6)


Purpose: To provide for the health and safety of people at work and the protection of others from hazards related to
work activities.
Major Provisions (General duties of employers to their employees):

o Provide safe systems of work, plant and machinery.
o Eliminate hazards.
o Arrange for safe production, processing, storage, or transport.
o Provide information, instructions, training, and supervision.
o Not permit work unless precautionary measures have been taken.
o Ensure requirements of the Act are complied with.
o Ensure that work is supervised by trained people.
o Inform all employees of their duty under the Act.
General duties of the employee:






o Take care of own health and safety and others affected by actions.
o Cooperate with the employer on compliance with the Act.
o Give information to an inspector.
o Carry out lawful instruction from employer.
o Report any incident, occupational disease, or dangerous situation.
Reporting: Employers must report incidents, injuries, or occupational diseases.
Occupational Diseases: Medical practitioners must report certain diseases.
Inspectors: Appointed by the Minister of Employment and Labour to ensure compliance.
Victimisation: Prohibited to victimise an employee for reporting non-compliance.
Fines: Penalties for non-compliance with the Act.
NOSA: An organisation promoting health and safety in the workplace through training and motivational activities.
13. Workplace Violence (12.8) and Workplace Harassment (12.9)

Workplace Violence (12.8): Violence originating in the workplace between employees, employees and employers, and
employees and customers/clients.
o
o

Relatively rare in South Africa, but increasing.
Prevention strategies: Hire carefully, draw up and implement employee development plan for preventing
violence, adopt a zero-tolerance policy, enlist aid of professionals.
o Indicators of potential violence: History of violent/aggressive behaviour, preoccupation with weapons, holds
grudges, threatening statements.
o More subtle indicators: Extreme non-attendance, lateness, inability to take criticism, disinterest, socially
isolated, extreme or unusual behaviour, marked mood changes.
o Immediate threat indicators: Physical (sweating, pacing), vocal (shouting, abusive language), threatening
gestures.
Workplace Harassment (12.9): Any form of harassment that takes place in the workplace, including physical, verbal,
written or non-written communication.
o
o
o
Workplace bullying: Acts or verbal/written comments aimed at hurting, intimidating, offending, humiliating,
isolating, or degrading a person in the workplace.
Management: Organisations must have proper policies and mechanisms to deal with bullying and harassment,
and investigate all complaints.
Investigating Workplace Bullying/Harassment (HR in Practice):




An anonymous incident may be reported.
Interview the alleged bully, victim, and witnesses.
Look at electronic records (digital witnesses, emails, text messages).
Review previous grievances, incident reports, leave requests, EAP records, exit interviews,
statistics/surveys.
Performance Management and Appraisal: Key
Concepts and Review Points (Chapter 9)
I. Definitions and Process Overview



Performance Appraisal (PA): PA is the ongoing process of evaluating and managing behaviors and outcomes in the
workplace. It involves processing the results of evaluating how well employees perform their jobs compared to a set of
standards and then communicating that information to them.
Performance Management (PM): This is a broader term than PA, associated with the 1980s total quality management
(TQM) programs. PM is a process where managers and employees work together to set expectations, review results,
and reward performance, significantly affecting organizational success.
Developing a PA System (Steps): The specific steps followed in developing a PA system will vary. General steps include:
1. Determine performance requirements: Administrators must determine what outputs, outcomes, and
2.
competencies will be evaluated.
Choose appropriate appraisal methods: The method used is strongly determined by the manner in which a
supervisor conducts the PA.
II. Objectives of Performance Appraisal
PA objectives are key elements in the use and development of an organization’s most vital resource—its
employees. These objectives are divided into two categories.
A. Evaluative Objectives (Administrative)
These objectives focus on past performance and are used for administrative purposes:



Compensation Decisions: They are used for determining pay increases, employee bonuses, merit reviews, or salary
increases. Organizations often use the term merit evaluation or merit rating.
Staffing Decisions: Used to make decisions regarding transfers, promotions, demotions, and layoffs.
Evaluate Selection System: PA results can be compared with test scores of job applicants to determine if selection tests
accurately predict job behavior.
B. Developmental Objectives (Future Focus)
These objectives focus on improving employee skills and motivation for future performance:



Performance Feedback: Providing feedback is a primary developmental need. Employees need to know how their
supervisors feel about their performance.
Direction for Future Performance: Providing guidance for future performance.
Identify Training and Development Needs (T&D): Developmental PA may recognize weaknesses and strengths in past
performance, which influences decisions about necessary T&D.
III. Performance Criteria (What is Measured)
There are three types of performance criteria used for evaluation:
1. Trait-based criteria: Focus on personal characteristics of an employee, such as creativity, loyalty, dependability, and
communication skills. The focus is on who a person is, not what they do or accomplish.
2. Behaviour-based criteria: Focus on specific behaviors that are connected with successful job performance (e.g.,
3.
assessing if an employee 'works well with co-workers').
Results or outcome-based criteria: Focus on what was accomplished or produced. This type of criterion is important
but may not be appropriate for every job and is often criticized for missing important aspects of the job, such as quality.
IV. Major Performance Appraisal Methods
PA methods are broken down into categories based on how performance is measured.
A. Comparative Methods
These rate the overall performance of one employee directly against others.



Ranking: Listing all employees from highest to lowest in performance. It is fast and easy and can be related directly to
compensation decisions. A disadvantage is that ranking seldom provides feedback and is poor for developmental
purposes.
Forced Distribution: Supervisors distribute employee evaluations into a pre-described distribution (e.g., along a bellshaped curve). This method is similar to ranking and eliminates central tendency and leniency biases.
Paired Comparison: Raters compare every pair of employees based on overall job performance. A significant
disadvantage is that the technique is time-consuming with large numbers of employees.
B. Behavioural/Objective Methods

Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS): A behavioral approach linking rating scales to specific critical incidents.
o

Advantages: Provides a more accurate gauge of performance, offers clearer standards, and is effective for
providing feedback.
Management by Objectives (MBO): Performance ratings are based on the employee's achievement of goals set
mutually between the employee and manager.
o
Characteristics of good MBO goals: They must be measurable, state expected results under the employee’s
control, include target dates, and define the necessary resources. MBO focuses on specific goals rather than
general traits like 'dependability'.
C. Category Rating Methods


Graphic Rating Scale: The rater scores the employee on a scale (e.g., 3-point or 5-point Likert-type) against various
attributes. This method is popular because the forms can be filled out quickly, but it is susceptible to rater errors.
Checklist of Critical Incidents: The form lists critical behaviors, and the supervisor ticks whether the employee
performed them. This method is easy to use, but developmental counseling is difficult because the checklist results
limit the use of information when providing feedback.
V. Common Rater Errors and Bias
Raters should be trained to minimize common errors.







Rater Bias: Occurs when a rater’s values or prejudices distort the rating.
Stereotyping: Mentally classifying a person into an affinity group and identifying the person as having the assumed
characteristics of that group.
Halo Effect: Rating a person high on all items because of performance in one area. A negative halo (or 'devil's horns')
effect also exists.
Central Tendency: Incorrectly rating employees near the average or middle of a scale, failing to reflect actual
performance differences.
Leniency: Giving an undeserved high PA rating. This may happen because supervisors want to be liked or justify higher
salaries.
Strictness: Being unduly critical of an employee’s work performance (the opposite of leniency).
Recency Effect: Assigning a rating based on the employee's most recent performance, rather than on long-term
performance.
VI. Who Does The Rating? (Multirater Process)
While the supervisor is the standard approach, many organizations use multiple raters.





Supervisors: Generally in the best position to observe behavior and determine whether goals were reached.
Peer Evaluations: Employees who work closely together rate performance. They are often useful in non-competitive
work groups.
Customer/Client Evaluations: Using comment cards, surveys, and follow-up techniques to gather feedback. Customer
input is becoming more valuable in non-service jobs.
Self-ratings: Employees evaluate their own performance. Supervisors tend to rate employees higher than self-ratings.
360-degree Appraisal (Multirater Process): This method incorporates feedback from supervisors, peers, customers, self,
and subordinates. The feedback is invaluable because it comes from numerous sources, providing multiple
perspectives and opinions.
VII. The Appraisal Interview
The appraisal interview is considered one of the final and most important steps of the PA process. It is
primarily intended for performance-related feedback and employee development.


Three Topics Typically Covered: Performance improvement feedback, corporate goal feedback, and salary information.
Interview Process Steps (General):
1. Prepare for the interview: Review work records and prepare facts to support the appraisal.
2. State the purpose of the interview: Should be stated clearly to avoid mixing developmental and staffing
decisions.
3. Indicate specific areas of good performance and areas that need improvement: Supervisors should generally
4.
5.
begin by highlighting good performance.
Invite participation: Encourage employee participation to clarify misunderstandings.
Focus on development: Discuss necessary training or development programs.

Problem-solving interviews are developmental and focus on employee growth and enhancement. In this context, the
role of the interviewer is primarily as a helper, not a judge.
VIII. Legal and Technology Considerations

Legal Safeguards: PA systems must adhere to new legislation pertaining to labour relations, employment equity, and
the Constitution in places like South Africa. Assessment criteria used must be objective, job-related, and nondiscriminatory.
o


Experts suggest that appraisals should be written, handled confidentially, and that supervisors must be
trained to be truthful and constructive.
Technology in PM: Technology automates the process by tracking goals, scoring, appraising, and processing data for
use in training, compensation, and planning.
Electronic Monitoring: Technology allows employers to monitor performance electronically, using methods like video
surveillance or monitoring key-strokes and email. The source notes that changes in technology have had a dramatic
effect, especially given the increased reliance on remote monitoring and HRIS during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Chapter 8: Internal Staffing and Career
Management Issues
1. Internal Staffing: Definition and Core Goal
Internal Staffing is defined as the placement of individuals already in the service of the organization.



This process relies on additional information such as all aspects of their performance since appointment, as well as skills,
competencies, and qualifications obtained.
It is a vital component for the effective achievement of organizational strategies.
The core goal is the placement of the right individual in the right position at the right time.
2. Rationale for Designing a Proper Internal Staffing
Programme
There are several current issues that necessitate the design of a formal internal staffing programme:
2.1. Employee Dissatisfaction
Employees often leave if they feel their efforts are unappreciated or if opportunities for promotion are absent.


Dissatisfied employees look elsewhere for better opportunities.
The desired state (personal growth, satisfaction, and career opportunities) can only be achieved if an internal staffing
programme is properly designed and implemented.
2.2. Increasing Concerns with Job Security
Factors like the slow economic growth experienced over the past few years, the rise of Industry 4.0, and
pandemics (such as COVID-19) have led to job losses.


Maintaining a stable workforce is important.
A formal staffing programme is required to handle internal deployment of employees more effectively.
2.3. Changing Employee Attitudes and Concerns
Traditional values (loyalty, trust, commitment) have changed.



New emphasis is placed on individual responsibility and employability.
Employees often seek special arrangements, such as obtaining housing in a new location (e.g., a transfer from
Johannesburg to Cape Town) or employment for a spouse in a dual-career family.
Employees may increasingly request information about opportunities, promotions, and qualifications needed to attain
them.
2.4. Employment Equity Issues (South Africa)
Legislation requires the promotion of designated groups (women, Black people, Coloured people, Asian
people, and people with disabilities) to higher levels of employment.

This requires a sound internal staffing programme, as well as drawing up and submitting employment equity plans.
2.5. Labour Union Presence
Labour unions inevitably affect internal staffing and development procedures.


They influence the availability of promotional and training opportunities for designated groups.
Employees may be more likely to be notified of internal vacancies and given opportunities to apply for them when
unions are present.
3. Factors Influencing Internal Staffing Decisions
Decisions are influenced by organizational and economic factors:
3.1. Organisation Growth

When a business or organization is growing, existing employees can be promoted to fill new positions.
3.2. Reorganisation


Major restructuring, mergers, or reorganizations often result in various types of personnel action.
Reorganization influences a wide range of HR activities, including job design, compensation, benefits, and labour
relations.
3.3. General Economic Trends and Other Issues (Such as a Pandemic)


Economic cycles, technology changes, and legal or illegal issues act as important variables in internal staffing decisions.
Employees may lose their jobs temporarily or permanently, or they may be required to work remotely due to risk
(related to a pandemic).
3.4. Attrition


Attrition refers to employee reductions that result from termination, resignation, retirement, transfer out of the
business unit, and death.
Early-retirement programmes have increased in particular.
4. Advantages of Internal Staffing
Internal staffing for non-entry-level positions offers several key advantages:

Management can maintain greater control over the skills/competencies and work habits of their employees.







Employees acquire job-related skills gradually and can fill complicated or critical positions without being overwhelmed.
Organizations save time and expense because they do not have to spend time orienting new incumbents to the
business environment or organizational culture.
Choosing internal candidates allows employers to gain more detailed information about their abilities, aptitudes, and
work habits.
Emphasis on internal staffing presents opportunities from the standpoint of employee satisfaction, commitment, and
enhanced morale.
It enables organizations to fulfill hiring goals and timetables, particularly concerning employment equity action in South
Africa.
Employees can be placed in the best interests of both the organization and the individual.
It can contribute to the organization’s bottom line.
5. Requirements and Strategies for Internal Staffing
5.1. Requirements for Effective Internal Staffing
The organization's first obligation is to pay close attention to identifying the current employee skill levels
and development needs.




The organization must support employees to be flexible and adaptable.
Employees must be able to move easily within the organization, and multiskilling should be encouraged as it broadens
employability.
A comprehensive and updated HR information system (HRIS) is necessary to determine utilization rates for placement
decisions.
The staffing programme must secure the presence of top-level managers and line managers who can handle formal
and informal power structures within the organization.
5.2. Types of Internal Staffing Strategies
Research categorizes strategies for managing internal staffing into three types:
1. Pure selection strategy: This aims to choose the most qualified person for each position.
o
This strategy maximizes response to organizational needs and often uses mathematical algorithms to assist in
decisions.
2. Vocational guidance strategy: This strategy attempts to place the person in the position for which he or she is most
qualified.
o
This approach relies primarily on the assessment-classification model.
3. Compromise staffing strategy: This strategy represents an opposite extreme of the pure selection and vocational
guidance strategies.
o
It attempts to place all eligible employees in jobs that fill vacancies while meeting individual and organizational
needs. Candidates placed must meet at least the same minimum standards of performance.
5.3. Guidelines for Strategy Selection
The selection of the most effective strategy depends on several conditions:

The job ratio: The number of job openings compared to the number of applicants.
o
o
A large selection ratio (many applicants, small number of posts) favors the pure selection strategy.
A small selection ratio favors the vocational guidance strategy.


The relative costs associated with performance in the position. If performance errors are extremely costly, the pure
selection strategy is preferred, based on scores with maximum validity.
The nature of the interrelationship between jobs. This is especially relevant for jobs that are successive or have
dependent operations.
6. Approaches to Internal Staffing (Movements)
Internal staffing involves various movements, including promotion, demotion, transfer, lay-offs,
downsizing/retrenchment, quits/dismissals, and retirement.
6.1. Promotion
Promotion is the reassignment of an employee to a higher-level job. This usually involves greater
responsibility, increased status, a pay increase, and better benefits.
Methods for Recruiting Promotions:


Closed promotion system: The supervisor of the vacancy, in collaboration with the HR department, selects the
employee, often based on past performance and potential. A drawback is that employees may overlook opportunities.
Open promotion system (Job Posting): Job vacancies are publicized on bulletin boards and internal communication
systems, allowing all interested employees to apply.
Criteria for Promotion Decisions:
1. Seniority: The length of service.
o
o
Arguments for seniority: It avoids bias from supervisors, is simple and painless, and often rewards loyalty.
Arguments against seniority: It may discourage young, talented employees and potentially lead to high
turnover.
2. Performance: Past performance is not always a valid indicator of future performance, especially when the promoted
job requires significantly different skills and abilities.
3. Assessment Centres: Used to test the skills and abilities required for higher-level jobs and determine the gap between
current and required skills.
4. Unofficial Promotion Criteria: These include social factors, membership in a political party or club, and evaluations
from the "right" university.
Advantages of Internal Promotion:






Employees are likely to feel more secure and identify with the long-term interests of the organization.
Promotions enable employees to achieve their greatest extent possible.
Promotions can encourage excellent performance and morale.
High levels of job satisfaction are promoted.
Internal employees are generally better qualified.
Internal promotion can be less expensive.
Disadvantages of Internal Promotion:





Limiting selection to internal employees may overlook highly qualified personnel from other sources.
People may be promoted beyond their level of incompetence (Peter Principle).
Rather than improving the workforce through promotion, the organization may be weakening its existing stable base.
Promotion requires additional training for the new and replacement employee.
Promotion may lead to infighting, loss of valued perspectives, and management deficiencies.
6.2. Demotion
Demotion is the reassignment of an employee to a lower job level with less pay, involving fewer skills and
responsibilities.


Demotions can result from reorganization, mergers, or poor performance.
It is important to note that demotion is sometimes not an effective way to handle disciplinary problems.
6.3. Transfer
A Transfer is the reassignment of an employee to another job, which is a lateral movement. It typically
involves a promotion of status, duties, and responsibilities, but a transfer moves an employee horizontally
from one job to another.


Transfers are common because organizations are becoming leaner and flatter.
Movement between jobs is increasingly important for promotion in flat organizations.
6.4. Lay-offs
A Lay-off is a temporary termination of employment, or the elimination of jobs, usually due to economic
downturn or organizational restructuring.


Lay-offs are temporary and do not carry the same psychological impact as being dismissed.
In general, organizations first cut back on overtime, then contractors (large and small), followed by part-time
employees, and finally full-time employees.
6.5. Downsizing / Retrenchment (Restructuring/Rightsizing)
Downsizing is the reduction in the size of an organization’s workforce.


Successful downsizing programmes streamline management and make jobs more financially bearable.
A poorly managed effort can create a negative image, reduce morale, and cause remaining employees to feel unfairly
dismissed.
6.6. Resignations, Quits, and Dismissals
An employment contract can end in three ways:
1. By the employee's voluntary resignation.
2. By the employee's quitting the organisation without notice.
3. By the employer's dismissing the employee for specific reasons such as incompetence or violation of rules/dishonesty.


Dismissals are initiated by the employer and represent the most extreme disciplinary action.
Exit interviews are key to determining the real reasons for departure and improving organizational effectiveness.
6.7. Retirement
Retirement is a special case of resignation where employees receive a monthly pension until death.
Retirement can be early, mandated by the employer, or early due to ill-health.
7. Career Management
7.1. Key Career Management Terminology

Career: A sequence of jobs held during a person’s working life.




Career Management: The process of designing and implementing goals, plans, and strategies that enable HR
professionals and managers to satisfy workforce needs and allow individuals to achieve their career objectives.
Employability: A set of skills and personal attributes that makes individuals more likely to gain and sustain appropriate
employment.
Individual career planning: The process in which each employee personally plans his or her own career goals.
Organizational career planning: The process in which management plans career goals for employees.
7.2. Benefits of Career Management
A well-planned program benefits both the organization and employees:






Staffing inventories: Ensures a continuous supply of professional, technical, and managerial talent.
Staffing from within: Helps avoid the disadvantages of promoting from outside, which requires recruitment.
Solving staffing problems: May remedy problems like high employee turnover.
Satisfying employee needs: Meets the high expectations of employees regarding career opportunities.
Enhanced motivation and performance: Employees are likely to be motivated and perform at peak levels.
Employment equity: Supports the elimination of discriminatory practices and promotes career mobility.
7.3. The Changing Face of Career Management
The nature of the career has shifted significantly from the Traditional Model to the Boundaryless Career
due to rapid technology changes, job insecurity, and increased competition.
Characteristics of the Old Career (Traditional):






Employment relationship: Job security for loyalty.
Boundaries: Work for one or two organizations in one's lifetime.
Skills: Organization-specific.
Success measured by: Pay, promotion, and status.
Career horizon: Long.
Hierarchy level: Steep ladder.
Characteristics of the New Career (Boundaryless):






Employment relationship: Employability for performance and flexibility.
Boundaries: Work for multiple organizations in one's lifetime.
Skills: Transferable.
Success measured by: Psychologically meaningful work.
Career horizon: Short.
Hierarchy level: Flat.
7.4. Successful Career Management
Four factors are crucial for effective career management:
1. Shared Responsibility: Line managers and HR administrators must share responsibility.
2. Supportive Climate: Support must come from a climate that encourages promotion from within, development of skills,
and the use of valid performance criteria for promotion decisions.
3. Integration of Plans: Organizational career planning, individual career planning, and implementation processes (like job
posting and training) must be integrated.
4. Career Match: The employee’s personal aspirations must match the organization’s strategic and operational needs.
7.5. Career Planning Components
Career planning involves two aspects:
1. Organizational career planning: Forecasting both long- and short-term HR needs.
2. Individual career planning: The development of a strategy to achieve career goals.
o
This often involves career counselling, which helps individuals find out about themselves (interests, values,
strengths) and identify future opportunities.
7.6. Career Stages
Employees generally progress through four stages:
1. Establishment: The start of the career, characterized by anxiety and uncertainty. Focus is on establishing a supportive
2.
3.
4.
and caring environment.
Advancement: The employee demonstrates competence and knowledge. Focus is on coaching, mentorship, and career
guidance.
Maintenance: Employees achieve their highest advancement. They devote energy to developing others but risk
disappointment, frustration, and possible withdrawal.
Withdrawal: The individual begins to move towards leisure or retirement.
8. Special Career Issues
8.1. The Plateaued Employee
A career plateau occurs when an employee has reached the highest position level that he or she can
possibly attain within an organization, with no future prospect of promotion.



This can lead to frustration, decreased motivation, and poor performance.
The HR department should take the lead in addressing plateaued employees.
Management solutions include assigning lateral moves, offering counselling, or outlining outplacement services.
8.2. Dual-Career Couples
Dual-career partnerships involve couples in which both members follow their own careers and actively
support each other’s career development.
Problems Confronting Dual-Career Couples:





Conflicting alternatives: Especially concerning relocation, which creates a crisis over whose career takes precedence.
Reluctance to approach the organisation: Couples may be reluctant to discuss their problems with management.
Possibility of a no-career couple: One spouse is stable, but the other is not.
Family versus work conflicts: Related to childcare and household responsibilities.
Lack of experience with conflict resolution: Many lack the skills to negotiate family needs and work demands.
Assistance Provided by Employers:





Dual-career audit: To assess the number of dual-career employees and potential conflicts.
Special recruiting techniques: Giving potential employees and their spouses a realistic view of the organization’s
workforce.
Revision of transfer policies: Using temporary relocation assignments or geographic transfer allowances.
Examination of nepotism policies: Reviewing policies regarding the employment of spouses.
Assistance for dual-career couples: Workshops, seminars, and networking support.
Chapter 12: Health and Safety Study Notes
I. Core Concepts and Occupational Health Model




Health refers to the general state of physical, mental, and emotional well-being.
Safety involves protecting people’s physical well-being, specifically focusing on preventing injuries and accidents in the
workplace.
Organisations are responsible for creating and maintaining a work environment free from unnecessary hazards that
could lead to injury, illness, or death.
Model of Occupational Safety and Health (Figure 12.1): This model connects various factors:
1. Sources of hazards (Physical work environment and Socio-psychological work environment).
2. Safety and health conditions (Physiological-physical: occupational accidents/diseases; Psychological: low
quality of working life, organisational stress, job burnout).
3. Outcomes (High turnover/absenteeism, dissatisfaction, low productivity, low efficiency, high workers’
compensation costs, low job involvement, low quality).
II. Stress
Definitions and Types


Stress is defined as any demand caused by physical, mental, or emotional factors that requires coping behaviour.
Stress definitions can be differentiated based on three viewpoints:
1. Stimulus definition: The force or stimulus acting on the individual.
2. Response definition: The physical or psychological response to an environmental stressor.
3. Interaction definition: The consequence of the interaction between the environmental stimulus and the
individual’s response.


Eustress is positive stress that is accompanied by achievement and exhilaration.
Distress is harmful stress characterized by a loss of feelings of security and adequacy.
Causes of Stress (Stressors)
Stress is created by a number of interrelated factors, not a single cause. Stressors are grouped into six
categories:
1. Organisational: Poor communication, job overload, extreme management styles, lack of clear goals, lack of
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
positive/negative feedback, inadequate staffing.
Individual: Lack of self-esteem/confidence, Type A personality, unrealistic expectations, lack of organisation, inability to
set boundaries, financial concerns.
Interpersonal: Being required to fulfill others’ expectations, demands for precision, poor work-life balance, lack of
respect/recognition.
Cultural: Racial, religious, or gender discrimination, rigid expectations of behaviour.
National: Government policies, the economy (unemployment), taxation, legislation, civil unrest, disasters/pandemics.
Community: Inadequate local services, noise/pollution, lack of demand by the community.
Signs and Management of Stress




Feelings/Symptoms: Sadness, frustration, helplessness, anxiety, guilt, irritability, depression.
Behavioural/Physical Symptoms: Difficulty with concentration, loss of memory, substance abuse, excessive
smoking/drinking, headaches, stomach problems, increased heart rate, changes in breathing patterns, frequent
illnesses.
Individual Coping Strategies: Determine the cause, assess control, make time for enjoyment, plan work/life balance,
set boundaries, exercise regularly, meditate, seek counseling if needed, rely on support networks.
Organisational Strategies to Control Stress: Focus on organisational-level and individual-based efforts.
o
o
o
o
Preventive management: Identify and tackle problems that may become serious stressors.
Maintaining a productive culture: Creating a climate that values health and safety through programmes and
flexible work hours.
Management by objectives (MBO).
Controlling the physical environment (reducing noise, improving light/temperature).
o
Employee fitness facilities and providing wellness programmes.
III. Burnout
Definition and Differentiation



Job burnout is a state of physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion combined with doubts about one's competency
and the worthiness of one's work.
Burnout is the result of chronic stress. It occurs when an individual feels they cannot, or will not, continue to do their
job.
Some researchers identify three forms: frenetic burnout (overload/ambitious), under-challenged burnout
(boredom/lack of stimulation), and worn-out burnout (little control/no proper support).
Causes and Consequences of Burnout




Personality Traits: Perfectionism, tendency to worry, pessimistic view of the world, being reluctant to delegate, highachievers.
Job-related Causes: Feeling little control over work, excessive demands, unfair/unrealistic expectations, high-pressure
work environment, lack of recognition.
Lifestyle Causes: Imbalance (working too much), lack of time for relaxation, insufficient sleep or rest.
Signs and Symptoms (Table 12.4 & 12.5):
o
o
o
Physical: Exhaustion, fatigue, frequent headaches/illnesses, change in physical appearance.
Emotional: Cynicism, depression, low self-esteem, feelings of being unloved/unappreciated, sadness, apathy.
Behavioural: Low productivity, absenteeism, withdrawal, errors in judgment, decreased
attention/concentration, lack of commitment.
Management of Burnout
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The Three Rs Approach (Organisational):
1. Recognise: Watch for warning signs of burnout.
2. Reverse: Undo the damage by managing stress and seeking support.
3. Resilience: Build resilience through physical and emotional health care.
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What Employees Can Do: Set goals, adjust attitude (if negative), talk to professionals, learn stress management, set
boundaries.
What Employers Can Do: Evaluate performance realistically, ensure fair expectations and rewards, create a positive
culture, provide outlets for employees to release feelings/emotions.
IV. Employee Health-Care Programmes
1. Employee Assistance Programmes (EAPs)
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EAPs are designed to help employees overcome personal problems such as substance abuse, stress, and marital/family
problems.
EAPs are based on the philosophy that if an employee has a problem that interferes with work performance, the
employee should be offered assistance.
A major cause of the increase in EAP participation is the recovery rate.
Signs that an employee may need EAP support: Excessive absenteeism, tardiness, confrontations, poor judgment
leading to accidents, increased spillage/wastage, deteriorating personal appearance.
Steps for EAP Operation (Figure 12.4):
1. Employee is identified as in trouble (by self or supervisor).
2. Counselling (EAP or alternative) is offered and agreed upon.
3. Treatment or assistance is provided.
4. If successful, the problem is solved and the employee continues with work; if unsuccessful, disciplinary
action/termination may follow.
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Essentials for Effective EAPs: Awareness of the programme, Confidentiality, Non-disciplinary procedures, Voluntary
participation, Job security, Management support, Insurance coverage, Accessibility, and Follow-up.
2. Wellness Programmes
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These programmes are designed to address rising health costs and poor employee health and fitness, focusing on
improving overall health.
A complete wellness programme typically has three components:
1. Identifying health risks through screening and testing.
2. Educating employees about health risks (e.g., blood pressure, smoking, diet, obesity).
3. Encouraging employees to change their lifestyles through exercise, good nutrition, and health monitoring.
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Six components of successful wellness programmes (Coors model): Awareness, Education, Incentives, Programmes
(on-site), Self-action, and Follow-up/support.
Measuring Effectiveness: Measuring the Return on Investment (ROI) or Value on Investment (VOI) is challenging but
necessary, focusing on factors like improved behaviour, satisfaction, and productivity.
V. Specific Health and Safety Issues
1. Substance Abuse
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Alcohol abuse is uncontrolled or compulsive drinking that interferes with normal living patterns. It is a major
contributor to safety problems, accidents, and injuries.
Addressing Alcoholism: EAPs are effective, with rehabilitation success rates ranging from 65–80 per cent. An alcohol
policy should protect employees, prevent substance use at work, include supervisory training, and offer help/assistance.
Drug Abuse: Employers must implement appropriate disciplinary procedures and offer assistance via EAPs.
SANCA's approach to dealing with drug abuse: Step one: Confront the individual in a firm and supportive manner, Step
two: Disclose factual evidence, Step three: Promote communication, Step four: Consult a professional.
2. HIV and AIDS in the Workplace
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HIV/AIDS rates are high in South Africa.
Consequences for organisations include increased absenteeism, medical aid scheme costs, and reduced labour supply.
The Code of Good Practice on HIV and AIDS and the World of Work provides guidelines to assist employers.
Key principles for employers:
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Do not require a worker or applicant to undergo HIV testing, except if confirmed necessary by the Labour
Court.
Treat workers with HIV/AIDS without unfair discrimination regarding benefits, compensation, or reasonable
accommodation.
Maintain confidentiality regarding an employee's HIV status.
3. Smoking in the Workplace
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Legislation, including the Occupational Health and Safety Act and the Tobacco Products Control Act, regulates smoking.
The law mandates employers to adopt a smoking policy that allocates designated areas for smoking, or enforces a
complete smoking ban.
4. Pandemics and Disasters
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Pandemics (like COVID-19) and disasters have a huge impact on the health and safety of employees.
The impact is emotional, physical, mental, and financial.
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Organisational strategies: Providing flexible working arrangements, additional accommodation support (e.g., reliable
Wi-Fi for remote work), ensuring clear communication of protocols, and offering counselling and EAP support.
VI. Safety Management and Occupational Diseases
Safety Management
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Safety management programmes focus on the effective management of matters related to employees’ physical safety.
Reason's Swiss Cheese Model (Figure 12.5): Accidents occur when multiple weaknesses (holes in the cheese slices)
align across different levels of the organisation. Weaknesses include management decisions, organisational processes,
preconditions, unsafe acts, and deficiencies in the system.
Safety Incentives: Cash rewards or prizes used to encourage safe behaviour, resulting in lower injury rates and reduced
insurance premiums/legal expenses.
Occupational Injuries and Illnesses
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Cumulative Trauma Disorder (CTD): One of the fastest-growing occupational injuries in South Africa, caused by
repetitive motions leading to injuries like carpal tunnel syndrome and repetitive strain injury. Ergonomics helps manage
CTD.
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS): Symptoms like headaches, dizziness, and fatigue are linked to poor indoor air quality,
inadequate ventilation, and pollutants in the building. Organisations look to the design of Green Buildings to address
this.
Occupational Diseases: Diseases contracted due to work (e.g., lung disease from mining, cancer from radiation
exposure). Employers must provide safety equipment and training.
VII. Legal Framework: OHSA
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Occupational Health and Safety Act, No. 85 of 1993 (OHSA): Regulates the payment of compensation for
injuries/diseases and sets rules protecting employees and the public from work hazards.
Purpose of OHSA: To secure the health and safety of people at work, protect others from work-related hazards, and
establish an Advisory Council.
General duties of employers include: Providing safe systems of work, eliminating hazards, providing information,
training, and supervision, and ensuring employees comply with the Act.
General duties of employees include: Taking care of their own health and safety, cooperating with the employer, and
carrying out lawful instructions.
Reporting: Employers must submit a report to an inspector if any person dies, becomes unconscious, suffers a serious
injury, or contracts an occupational disease.
Fines: Contravention of safety regulations can lead to fines of up to R100 000 and/or two years’ imprisonment.
NOSA (National Occupational Safety Association): An organisation promoting health and safety in South Africa, known
for its Five-Star system for grading safety performance.
VIII. Workplace Violence and Harassment
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Workplace Violence: Violence that originates between employees, employees/employers, and employees/clients. It is
important to look for indicators like a history of violence, abuse of substances, bullying, or extreme non-attendance.
Violence Prevention: Hiring carefully, training employees, developing a plan against violence with employee
participation, adopting a zero-tolerance policy, and using external resources.
Workplace Harassment: Any form of harassment (physical, verbal, written, or non-verbal communication). This
includes workplace bullying.
Organisations must enforce proper policies and disciplinary procedures to ensure a zero-tolerance message regarding
harassment and bullying.