Five major treaties that resulted from the Paris Peace Conference:
Treaty of Versailles (Germany): Germany lost key territories, faced strict military limits,
was banned from uniting with Austria, and had to pay heavy reparations after accepting
war guilt.
Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (Austria): Austria-Hungary dissolved, losing
significant land and facing military restrictions.
Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine (Bulgaria): Bulgaria ceded land, faced military reductions,
and paid reparations.
Treaty of Trianon (Hungary): Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory and faced military
restrictions.
Treaty of Sèvres (Ottoman Empire): The Ottoman Empire was broken up, losing most
of its land to the Allies.
League of Nations
The League of Nations, conceived by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and formalized during
the Paris Peace Conference (part of the Treaty of Versailles) in 1919 after WW1 (established in
1920 in Geneva), aimed to maintain world peace and prevent future conflicts.
Structure:
The deliberative body with representatives from all member states, each having one vote, met
annually to discuss and vote on issues.
Council:
The executive body responsible for maintaining peace, comprised of permanent members
(Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and non-permanent members elected by the Assembly.
Aims:
Maintain peace, prevent aggression, promote disarmament, and improve global welfare.
Failure:
Failed to stop aggression due to weak enforcement power.
Key nations like the U.S. never joined, and Germany was excluded until 1926.
Ineffective response to fascist expansion (e.g., Japan in Manchuria, Italy in Abyssinia,
Germany's rearmament).
Relied on appeasement and diplomacy without military backing.
Unit 1 – Construction of the Cold War System
Definitions:
Capitalism: An economic system where private individuals or companies own businesses
and make profits.
Socialism: A system where the government or community controls key industries and
resources for the benefit of everyone.
Communism: A system where all property is owned collectively, and everyone shares
resources equally, with no private ownership.
What caused the transition of the USA and USSR from being Allies to
becoming adversaries?
Background:
1905 (Russo-Japanese War): Russia defeated.
1917 (February Revolution): Tzar removed, Provisional Government formed.
1917 (October Revolution): Bolsheviks seize power, Lenin leads.
1918-1921: Russian Civil War (Red Army vs White Guards).
Capitalist nations (France, Britain, USA, Japan) support the White Guards (anti-Bolshevik
forces).
Bolsheviks (Red Army) win and form the USSR.
Subtle Signs of cooperations between USA & USSR:
1921-1923: American Relief Administration (ARA) provides $100M for European
reconstruction, including loans to Russia.
1924: Amtorg established to facilitate US-Soviet trade.
1933: US recognizes Soviet sovereignty due to mutual concerns over Hitler's rise.
Mutual distrust and rivalry:
Capitalist intervention in the Russian Civil War.
16-year delay in US recognition of the USSR.
Ideological differences (capitalism vs communism).
Anglo-Russian relations
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Britain and Russia were allies during WWI.
After the Russian Revolution, Britain sent troops to combat the Bolsheviks.
Churchill, a key figure in the British government, strongly supported military
intervention against the Bolsheviks, fearing the spread of communism.
Slight indicators of cooperation between Britain & USSR
1920: All-Russian Co-Operative Society set up for Soviet-British trade.
1921: Anglo-Soviet trade treaty signed formalizing trade.
1924: Britain recognizes Soviet sovereignty.
Complete distrust and different ways:
1922: Signature of the treaty of Rapallo: a Soviet-German agreement involving arms provision,
fuelling British distrust.
1924: Zinoviev Letter: a fake letter suggesting Soviet interference in British politics, increasing
anti-Soviet sentiment in Britain and influencing the election against the Communist Party.
1927: ARCOS affair: A raid on the Soviet trade office (ARCOS) in London, due to suspicions of
espionage, which led to a breakdown in diplomatic relations and deepened mistrust.
Franco-Russian relations
Russia sent 45,000 troops to aid France in WWI. Later, France opposed the Bolsheviks,
supported Poland in the Polish-Russian War, and recognized Pyotr Wrangel as Russia's leader.
Slight indicators of cooperation between France & USSR
1924: Formal acknowledgment of the Soviet Union formation.
Jean Herbette: French ambassador in USSR.
Leonid Krasin (Soviet commissar of foreign trade): Soviet ambassador in France.
Cultural Exchanges:
USSR joined the 1925 Paris Exposition.
French-Russian artist exhibitions followed USSR recognition.
Writers from France and Russia exchanged visits.
Paris, a city of exiled Russian revolutionaries:
After 1905, Paris became a hub for exiled Russian revolutionaries.
Lenin and Trotsky lived in Paris between 1905-1917.
Paris was key in organizing the Bolshevik revolution.
The Paris Commune of 1871 inspired Lenin's revolutionary ideals and the formation of the
Soviet state.
Rise of Fascism and Nazism
Fascism rose in Italy under Mussolini (dictator of Italy and the founder of the Fascist Party),
driven by economic instability and fear of communism, promoting authoritarianism and
nationalism.
Nazism, a form of fascism led by Hitler in Germany, added a racial ideology to fascism,
pushing Aryan supremacy and persecuting Jews and other minorities.
The Wall Street Crash
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 was a major stock market collapse in the U.S. leading to
financial losses and panic. This crash triggered the Great Depression, severely affecting
economies worldwide, causing high unemployment and financial difficulties in many
countries. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 was a major stock market collapse in the U.S.
leading to financial losses and panic. This crash triggered the Great Depression, severely
affecting economies worldwide, causing high unemployment and financial difficulties in many
countries. As poverty and job loss spread, people began to lose trust in democracy, which
helped fascist leaders like Hitler and Mussolini gain support by promising to fix the economy
and protect against communism.
Goal: Evaluate the effectiveness of international efforts in halting
fascist expansionism during the 1930s
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1934: Hitler's attempt at Anschluss with Austria
Italy blocks the reunification attempt, fearing German expansion.
1935: Hitler reintroduces conscription
League of Nations (France, Britain) condemns but takes no action.
Britain signs Naval Agreement with Germany instead of opposing rearmament.
1935: Italy invades Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
No response from Britain or France; instead, they offer territory to appease Italy. (One
member of the league attacks another, without it doing anything)
1936: Rhineland occupation
German troops reoccupy the demilitarized Rhineland; Britain does not support French
intervention.
1936: Spanish Civil War
Italy and Germany back Nationalists, USSR supports Republicans.
France and Britain sign a non-intervention pact, avoiding involvement.
1936: Rome-Berlin Axis
Weak responses from Britain and France lead to the formation of a German-Italian
alliance.
1936: Anti-Comintern Pact
Germany and Japan sign the pact, aimed at opposing communism and the Soviet
Union. Italy later joins in 1937.
1938: Anschluss confirmed
German Army enters Austria in March; no response from the League of Nations.
1938: Munich Agreement
Great Britain and France sign an appeasement agreement with Germany and Italy
1939: German invasion of Czechoslovakia
Hitler breaks the Munich Agreement; Britain and France fail to act decisively.
1939: Italian invasion of Albania
No direct action from Britain or France against Italy.
1939: German invasion of Poland
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Invasion sparks WWII, showing the failure of appeasement and weak international
responses.
Conclusion:
The League of Nations and major powers, like Britain and France, were ineffective in stopping
fascist expansion due to a desire to avoid another war, relying on appeasement and diplomatic
inaction, which ultimately allowed fascist aggression to continue unchecked until WWII.