Most (more than 97%) of human history is not recorded.
Earliest writing in Mesopotamia
Adoption of writing is not uniform
Written texts omit much history and sometimes mislead
Suggests without text there is no history.
Prehistory - study of the human past before the time of writing.
Archaeology - study of past human behaviour through the remains of and related traces left
behind- organic remains, features, residues( burnt food etc. ), DNA and ancient DNA (aDNA)
Archaeology is concerned with all aspects of the past as they relate to humans.
Earth is around 4.6 billion years old.
Experimental sciences focus on experiments under controlled conditions and replication of
results
Historical science has a time component to them, replication is not feasible.
Scientific approach - constantly tested against correspondence to reality, continuously selfcorrecting, able to measure/ observe- empirical evidence.
Scientific method- hypothetical deductive method(hypothesis testing) collect, analyze and give
the result of the hypothesis- reject or revise.
Theory - events based on proven hypothesis and verified by researchers, well documented and
proven beyond a reasonable doubt.
*Scientific Archaeology
-Basic Assumptions:
1. Real and knowable universe
2. Operates according to rules & laws
3. Laws are immutable (i.e., they don’t change through time)
4. Laws can be studied & understood through observation & experimentation
Yt video Lucy and chimpanzees share :
1. elongated skull with small brain case
2. face and jaws that jut out from the braincase
3. shoulder blades and joints that are suited for climbing trees
4. long arms and hands with curved fingers
Lucy and humans share :
1. spine connection beneath the skull to keep the head steady
2. robust and broad basin-shaped pelvis to support the upper body and hold it upright
3. angled thigh bones that place the weight directly over strong knee joints
4. compact and arched feet that support the full body weight with each step
Mostly early hominines were passive scavengers unless they form a group big enough to scare
away predeators.
The Gona finds are considered to be made by hominins because they involved more work, finer
control, were found in fine sediments, and had more abundant sharp edges.
LEC 1
Introduction to Archaeology
Synthesis Points
1. Human Past:
o Around 200,000 years old.
o Origins extend millions of years before.
o Most of human history is unwritten.
2. Definition and Scope:
o Archaeology: Scientific study of physical remains (artifacts and sites) left by past
peoples.
o Methods include survey, excavation, and dating to learn about societies over
time.
3. Destructive Practices:
o Looting: Illegally excavating artifacts.
o Pseudoarchaeology: False interpretations of the past.
4. Field Diversity:
o Subfields dedicated to different places, methods, periods, and artifacts.
5. Heritage Importance:
o Preserving past matters for cultural heritage.
History vs. Prehistory
• History: Study of the human past through written records.
• Prehistory: Study before written records, relying on material remains.
Writing
• Not uniformly adopted.
• Written texts can be misleading or incomplete.
What Archaeology Studies
• Material Remains:
o Artifacts (e.g., tools, pottery).
o Organic remains (e.g., bones, shells).
o Features (e.g., structures).
o Residues (e.g., food remains).
o DNA and ancient DNA (aDNA).
What Archaeology Is Not
• Not Paleontology: Study of ancient life through fossils.
• Not Treasure Hunting: Focuses on context and scientific study, not profit.
Defining Archaeology
1. Scientific Method: Belief in a real and knowable past.
2. Context: Spatial relationships of objects.
3. Controlled Methods: Rigorous excavation and investigation.
4. Meticulous Recording: Detailed data recording.
5. Ethics: Following codes of conduct.
6. Non-renewable Resource: Treating archaeological records with care.
Scientific Approach
• Experimental Sciences: Emphasize controlled experiments (e.g., chemistry).
• Historical Sciences: Study past events (e.g., archaeology).
Scientific Method in Archaeology
• Hypothetico-deductive method: problem definition, hypothesis, data collection, testing,
and revision.
Laws and Theories
• Hypothesis: Tentative explanation.
• Law: Statement of fact, universally accepted.
• Theory: Well-documented explanation, verified multiple times.
Pseudoscience in Archaeology
• Pseudoarchaeology: False claims about the past, e.g., lost civilizations, prehistoric alien
visits.
• Harm: Misleads public, undermines real achievements, promotes ethnocentrism.
Material Culture
• Artifacts: Human-made objects (e.g., tools, pottery).
• Features: Non-portable remains (e.g., buildings, fire pits).
• Sites: Places of past human activity.
Context in Archaeology
• Associations: Related materials in nearby space.
• Matrix: Surrounding sediment.
• Provenience: 3-dimensional location.
• Taphonomy: Processes affecting material culture from deposition to recovery.
Relative and Absolute Dating
• Relative Dating: Determines age in relation to other objects (e.g., Law of Superposition).
• Absolute Dating: Provides a calendar age (e.g., radiocarbon dating).
Excavation Methods
• Controlled Excavation: Systematic digging and recording.
• Recovery Methods: Hand collection, screening, flotation, and sediment sampling.
Ethical Considerations
• Conservation Ethic: Preserving archaeological sites as non-renewable resources.
LEC 2
Overview
• Human Family Tree
• Uniqueness of Modern Humans
• Early Hominins (5 - 1.8 MYA)
o Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardi)
Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy)
Archaeological Investigation of Hominin Evolution
Human Origins
Major Evolutionary Trends: Bipedalism, Encephalization, Tool Manufacture and Use,
Hunting
o
•
•
•
Human Family Tree
• Bushy Structure: Four major groupings with multiple species.
• Survivors: Humans are the last remaining lineage.
Timeline Terms
• MA: Mega-annum (Million Years Ago)
• KA: Thousand Years Ago
• BP: Before Present (Radiometric Date)
• BC/AD: Before Christ/Anno Domini
• BCE: Before Common Era
Uniqueness of Homo Sapiens
Biological Features
1. Bipedal Locomotion: Walking upright on two legs.
2. Dextrous Hands: Opposable thumbs.
3. Extended Care: Prolonged development of young.
4. Large Brain: Increased encephalization.
Behavioral and Cognitive Traits
5. Abstract Thought
6. Flexible Behavior
7. Language and Symbolism
8. Complex Social Behavior: Culture, social learning.
9. Complex Social Networks
10. Material Culture
Hominidae Family
• Origins: Africa.
• Closest Relatives: Chimpanzees.
• Common Ancestor: Humans did not evolve from chimps but share a common ancestor.
Hominins
• Definition: Species more closely related to humans than to chimpanzees.
Investigation of Human Evolution
Paleoanthropology
• Fossil Records: Bones and footprints.
• Artifacts: Stone tools and other cultural remains.
• Environmental Data: Climate changes during Pleistocene.
• Ancient DNA: Limited to recent hominins.
• Archaeological Sites: Key locations for findings.
Significant Evolutionary Trends
Bipedalism
• First Trend: Hands freed for carrying, new selective forces, and constraints.
• Evidence: Fossils like Lucy and Laetoli Trackway.
• Anatomical Adaptations: Foramen magnum, curved spine, pelvis shape, femur angle.
Encephalization (Brain Size Increase)
• Cognitive Complexity: Social learning, innovation, ecological flexibility.
• Significance: Planning, forethought, and social behavior.
Tool Manufacture and Use
• Earliest Tools: 3.3 MYA at Lomekwi 3, Kenya.
• Toolmaking Implications: Dexterity, cognitive complexity, and social learning.
Hunting and Scavenging
• Early Behavior: Predominantly scavenging over active hunting.
• Evidence: Cut marks on bones suggest scavenging.
Early Hominins
Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardi)
• Period: 4.51 to 4.32 MYA.
• Traits: Evidence of bipedalism, tree-climbing adaptations.
Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy)
• Period: 3.85 to 2.95 MYA.
• Traits: Bipedalism, pelvis and leg adaptations, Laetoli footprints.
Tool Manufacture and Use
Lomekwian Industry
• Oldest Stone Tools: 3.3 MYA, Kenya.
• Significance: Predates Oldowan by 700 KA, raises questions about toolmakers.
Oldowan Industry
• Period: 2.6 to 1.66 MYA.
• Distribution: Africa, Asia, Europe.
• Tool Types: Cores, flakes, choppers, and butchered bones.
Hunting and Scavenging
Early Hominins as Scavengers
• Evidence: Cut marks over tooth marks indicate scavenging.
• Behavior: Both active and passive scavenging.
Swartkrans Cave
• Revised Interpretation: Early hominins were preyed upon by leopards.
Synthesis Points
• Family Tree: Bushy with many species.
• Bipedalism: Earliest trend with significant impacts.
• Brain Size: Increased later in evolution.
•
•
Tool Use: Evidence of cognitive abilities and social learning.
Meat Consumption: Early hominins primarily scavenged.
Conclusion
Humans have evolved unique cognitive and cultural abilities through a complex process of
social learning and innovation, driven by a feedback loop between cultural practices and
biological evolution. This process has distinguished us from other animals and shaped the
modern human mind.
Homo rudolfensis has a bigger brain case size, a rounder head and has a longer face and large
molar and premolar, and the face is a bit more tucked in the brain case when compared to
homo habilis. The home habilis has more prominent brow bridges.
Homo erectus were the first hominin to make outside of Africa. Dramatic increase in brain size enhanced improvement in cognitive. Also, the maker of Acheulean stone tools.
Ascribed status the status you get from your parents (wealth derived from parents)- child burial
in Sungir Russia
Paleolithic Cave Art- all caves are dark and narrow, wet and cool.
Lascaux (17000- 15000 bp)- depicts mostly animals- reindeer, horses, boroxes(extinct
now) and few humans. Use minerals like ochre, and charcoal. Use shading etc. Now
closed for tourists
Altamira, Spain(18500 bp)- Known for bulls
Chauvet (32000 bp)- other sites had prey animals but this has carnivores like lions etc.
Pech merle, France (2500 bp)- have handprints and geometric designs like dots(may relate to
talking to spirits and hallucination)
Entoptics- hallucinations, Ingestion of substances(drugs) etc.
Venus figurines- small, used as personal objects probably, absence of feet/hands, large belly
and breast, no face, hint of hairline. Made of clay, bones, stone etc
Venus of Brassempouy 22 000 BCE - slight facial features, and clothing references.
Proposed explanations for the meaning of Venus figurines:
•  People (women?) carved female figurines as talismans to promote fertility/healthy
birth
•
•
•
•
 ‘Venus’ figurines – full-figured, seemingly pregnant  fertility figure (magic)
 Perspective implies self-portrait (reduced arms/legs, exaggerated stomach and
buttocks)
 Small hunter-gatherer bands are demographically unstable – fertility-valued
 Europe 35,000 – 11,000 years ago (most between 26,000 - 21,000)
Neanderthal DNA and Interbreeding
-  Recent studies indicate:
•  Gene-influencing pigmentation suggests that some Neanderthals were fair-skinned
and red-haired.
•  Neanderthal-modern H. sapiens inter-breeding occurred in the Near East, probably in
other regions as well.
•  Modern humans have Neanderthal DNA in them, 1- 2% (except Africans) based on
interbreeding following OoA2
•  Africans have a small (0.3%) Neanderthal contribution based on the back-migration
of Europeans into Africa in the last 20 kya
Denisovans
 Denisova Cave, Siberia, Russia
 Known only from several fragments of bone and teeth; ca. 195,000 – 52,000 years old
 Diverged from common ancestor with Neanderthals ca. 600 kya  Ancient DNA analysis:
 Part of the Denisovan genome found in modern Asian, Polynesian and Aboriginal Australians
(3 – 5 %)
 Indicates interbreeding with Homo sapiens
 Interbreeding between Denisovans and Neanderthals.
Homo floresiensis
 Liang Bua Cave, Island of Flores, Indonesia.
 Bone of diminutive (1.1m), archaic looking hominin; nicknamed “The Hobbit”  Bones in
poor condition; associated with stone tools that looked Oldowan.
 Date 100,000 – 60,000 years ago.
 Archaic features in skull and post-cranial skeleton: some ‘primitive’ dentition; no chin; small
cranial capacity
 Debate about status. Possible explanations:
 New species?
 Pathological?
 Island dwarfing?
 Possibly evolved from an Australopithecine that reached Asia?
Land bridges due to different sea levels during ice age allowed people to cross different regions
eg Russia and North America were connected with land bridges during last ice age around 18k
years ago.
Colonizing New Continents: Challenges and adaptability  Humans had to be extremely
adaptive:
 Open sea crossings in boats
 No way people could walk to Sahul (Joint continent of Australia and Papua New Guinea),
even at the time of the lowest sea
level
 At some point, they had to take the plunge and voyage beyond the horizon
 New plants and animals on Sahul
 Derived from the old super-continent Gondwanaland
 Totally foreign to the colonizing people
North and South America - possibly the last continent to be colonized.
ARCH100 Lecture 3: Detailed Notes
Overview
• The Genus Homo:
o Early examples: Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis.
o Earliest dispersal from Africa by Homo erectus.
o New tool industries: Acheulean, Mousterian, and Levallois.
o Homo heidelbergensis.
o Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis).
o Modern humans (Homo sapiens): Anatomy and behavior (symbolism).
o Denisovans and Homo floresiensis ("Hobbits").
o Peopling of Australia.
Significant Trends in Hominin Evolution
• Habitual/Obligate Bipedalism
• Increased Brain Size (Encephalization)
• Tool Manufacture and Use
• Hunting
• Controlled Fire
• Expansion from Africa
• Symbolic Behavior
• Language
The Genus Homo
Early Homo Species
• Homo habilis:
2.4 to 1.8 MYA.
Known as 'handy man', associated with Oldowan tools.
Found in Tanzania, Ethiopia, Kenya.
• Homo rudolfensis:
o 1.9 to 1.8 MYA.
o Found in Tanzania, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi.
o Once classified with H. habilis.
Homo erectus
• Period: 1.9 MYA to 143 KYA.
• Characteristics:
o Large brain (850-1100cc), increased over time.
o Maker of Acheulean stone tools.
o First fossils found in Asia (Java Man, Peking Man).
Homo heidelbergensis
• Period: ~700/900 KYA to 200 KYA.
• Characteristics:
o Tall, large brain (1300cc).
o Ancestor to Neanderthals and most humans.
o Maker of more refined Acheulean tools and wooden spears.
Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis)
• Period: 350,000 to ~40,000/30,000 BP.
• Characteristics:
o Large brain (1200-1750cc).
o Robustly built, heavily muscled, short-statured.
o Cold-adapted features.
o
o
o
Dispersal and Migration
Out of Africa Migrations
1. Homo ergaster/erectus leaves Africa to colonize Europe and Asia.
o Sites: Dmanisi (Georgia), Sangiran (Java), Ubeidiya (Israel).
o Controlled Use of Fire: First convincing evidence at Wonderwerk Cave, South
Africa (1 MYA).
2. Homo sapiens leaves Africa to colonize Europe, Asia, Australia, and the Americas.
o Timing: Homo sapiens cranial fragments found in Greece, dated to 210,000 BP
suggest possible earlier migration.
Tool Industries
Acheulean Industry
• Period: 1.76 MYA – 160/130 KYA.
• Tool: Acheulean Handaxe, multipurpose tool used by H. erectus, H. heidelbergensis, and
early Neanderthals.
Mousterian Tradition
• Technique: Levallois technique, used by Neanderthals.
• Tools: Prepared core technique for producing sharp flakes.
Symbolism and Behavior
Neanderthal Symbolism
• Artwork: Engraved cross-hatching at Gorham’s Cave, Gibraltar (39,000 BP).
• Possible Musical Instrument: Cave bear bone (debated).
• Personal Adornment: Shell bead (50,000 BP) in Spain.
• Burials: Shanidar Cave, Iraqi Kurdistan (debated).
Modern Humans (Homo sapiens)
Early and Archaic Homo sapiens
• Examples:
o Jebel Irhoud, Morocco (315,000 BP).
o Dali Man, China (260,000 BP).
o Southern Africa by 200,000 BP.
Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH)
• Characteristics: Rounded brain case, mental eminence (chin), gracile build.
• Earliest Example: Omar Kibish, Ethiopia (196,000 BP).
Symbolism and Art
Earliest Evidence
• Blombos Cave, South Africa:
o Engraved ochre and shell beads (70-100 KYA).
o Earliest drawing (73 KYA).
Artistic and Symbolic Explosion
• Period: After 50,000-40,000 BP.
• Forms: Personal adornment, rock art, portable statues.
Interbreeding and Genetic Evidence
Neanderthals and Denisovans
• Interbreeding: Genetic evidence shows 1-2% of the human genome from Neanderthals
in non-African populations.
• Denisovans: DNA analysis shows interbreeding with modern humans and Neanderthals,
contributing to the genome of modern Asian, Polynesian, and Aboriginal Australian
populations.
Peopling of Australia
Earliest Sites
• Madjedbebe Rockshelter: Dated to 65 KYA.
• Challenges: Adaptation to new plants and animals, open sea crossings.
Synthesis Points
• Family Tree: Remains ‘bushy’ until around 40 KYA.
• Migration Pulses: Multiple hominin species left Africa after 2 MYA.
•
•
•
•
Modern Behavior and Anatomy: Do not coincide; modern behavior in Homo sapiens
appeared around 60 KYA.
Symbolic Behavior: Not exclusive to Homo sapiens; seen in Neanderthals.
Interbreeding: Modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans capable of
interbreeding.
Global Spread: By 15 KYA, Homo sapiens had reached every habitable continent.
LEC 4
Overview
• Peopling of the Americas
• End of the Pleistocene/Ice Age
• Megafaunal Extinction/Quaternary Extinction Event
• Hunting, Gathering, and Foraging
• Transition to Food Production and Farming
o Site Examples: Ohalo II, Natufian, Jericho
• Broad Spectrum Revolution (BSR)
• Neolithic Revolution
Peopling of the Americas
• Via Beringia (Bering Land Bridge) (Between Alaska and Russia)
• 2 major proposed routeso Coastal Corridor: Along the west coast by boat, requiring less cultural
adaptation.
o Ice-Free Corridor: Became accessible after approximately 12,600 cal BP.
 ‘Clovis projectile points’ appear across much of ice-free North America 13,500 – 12,900
cal BP
❖ Once regarded as first peoples
❖ Once thought to be big game hunters responsible for ice age extinctions
❖ They were not the first people(not to confuse with first peoples(their name)) to
come to North America
Key Sites:
• Bluefish Caves, Yukon: Oldest site, 24,000 cal BP.
• Meadowcroft, Pennsylvania: 16,000 cal BP (disputed).
• Paisley Cave, Oregon: Human coprolites & DNA, 14,300 cal BP (disputed).
• Sites in BC((supports coastal route with refugia)(People suggest this were not covered
in ice so they supported vegetation)o Calvert Island, BC: Footprints, 13,200 BP.
o Triquet Island, BC: Village, 13,600-14,100 BP.
•
Monte Verde, Chile: 18,500-14,500 cal BP, among earliest sites in the Americas with
good preservation of stone tools, hearths, animal bones, plant remains, remains of huts,
and coprolites. Site that helped to reject that Clovis were the first people in North
America. Probably moved down the western coast in boats
Keep in mind....
•  More early sites are possible
•  Sea level 100m lower than present at height of last ice age
•  Possibility of submerged sites
•  Example of Doggerland: required reading this week.
Summary
 North America
•  32 genera of megafauna went extinct
 Mostly herbivores or their predators
•  5 other smaller mammalian genera
•  20+ genera of birds, reptiles and one tree
•  Generally, between 12,000-10,000 BP
Late Pleistocene Extinction of Megafauna
• Debate: Was human overhunting or climate change the cause?
• Megafauna: Large animals > 44 kg across North and South America, Eurasia, Africa, and
Australia. Roughly coincident with human arrival. Roughly coincident with climate
change. Animals were behaviourally naïve (didn’t run away so easy to hunt).
o Examples: Mammoth, Mastodon, Glyptodon, Giant Ground Sloths, Dire Wolf,
Sabertooth Cat.
Hypotheses:
• Human Hunting Pressure: Overkill hypothesis, proposed by Paul Martin.
• Climate Change: Environmental changes leading to extinction.
• Combination: Including landscape burning (for Australia), disease (Hyper-disease
hypothesis by Ross MacPhee).
Ice Age (Pleistocene) – Holocene Transition- Epoch we are currently in
Period: 15,000 years ago, to present.
o 15,000 years ago all people on the earth:
Used wild plants and animals for food (hunting/gathering/fishing)
o Were mobile around the landscape
• By 5,000 BP many peoples:
o Relied on agriculture for food
o Lived in sedentary settlements
o Showed clear signs of previously unknown technological, cultural and social
complexity
• This transition is known as the Neolithic Revolution
•
Changes in later stages (covered below as well):
o Shrinking land due to sea level rise.
o Warming climate and changing weather patterns.
o Shift in range and distribution of plants and animals.
o Extinction or migration of former prey species.
o Increased cultural and technological flexibility among humans.
•
Timeline
o Quaternary divided into:
Pleistocene Epoch 2.6 ma – 12 ka - Content from lectures 1-3
o Holocene Epoch 12,000 – present  Boundary = end of Ice Age
Much of the northern hemisphere was covered in either ice or tundra during the last Ice Age
Early Holocene (ca. 11,700 yrs ago to present)
• Known As: Epipalaeolithic (Middle East), Mesolithic (Europe), Archaic (North America).
• Technological Innovations:
o Bow and arrow, fish traps, weirs, dams, boats.
o Gradual increase in sedentism (permanent residence).
o Reliance on a variety of plants and animals, some eventually domesticated.
Late Pleistocene
 Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) is extremely cold and dry + sea levels 120m lower
•  After LGM, it took over 5000 years for climate to stabilize & for rivers and coasts to
find present locations (isostatic rebound continues)
•  Transition to Holocene brings:
o  Shrinking land
o  Warming climate, changing weather patterns
o  Shift in range and distribution of plants and animals
o  Former prey gone (extinct or leave area)
•  Cultural and technological flexibility helped humans cope
Events towards the end of the ICE ageForaging and Food Production
• Foraging: Hunting, fishing, gathering wild resources.
• Different types of cultural correlateso At one end Highly Mobile, Broad-based diet, the daily quest for food is rapidly
consumed, and relatively small egalitarian groups(no social hierarchy- everyone
is equal.
o On the other hand- Less Mobile, Narrow diet, seasonal resource surpluses
stored using technologies like smoking, drying, fermentation, and salting- meat.
Early Holocene  General trends:
 New technologies appear
 Bow and arrow
 Fish traps, weirs, dams
 Boats
•
Gradual increase in sedentism- Permanent residence in one location
• Reliance on many plants and animals that are eventually domesticated
• Emerging social complexity; increases significantly with sedentism and food
production (farming and agriculture)
• Transition to food production
• Examples: Ohalo II; Natufian; Jericho
New Technologies
 During transitional period from post-ice age foraging to early food production, see the
appearance of:
 Composite tools - broken parts can be replaced
 Microliths
And then...
 Arrowheads, polished tools, specialist pieces such as sickles (new tools associated with
food production)
Examples of Early Sites:
• Ohalo II, Sea of Galilee, Israel:
o Period: ca. 23,000 cal BP.o Large camp
o brushwood huts
o central hearths
o Features- people using more stuff now: diverse subsistence base (seeds, animal
bones, fish). Material culture(stone tools and beads)
o Seasonal occupation
o During Late Glacial Maximum
o Pleistocene hunter-gatherers
•
•
•
•
•
•
Earliest evidence for plant cultivation (not yet domesticated)
 Small grass seeds (> 90% of seeds recovered)
 Wild cereal grains (barley, wheat)
 Wild pulses (lentils)
 Fruits and nuts (acorns, almonds, olives, berries, raspberry, fig, grape)
 Wide variety of animal foods (mammals, birds, rodents, fish, molluscs)
Broad Spectrum Revolution in SW Asia
•
•
 The transition to farming (wheat, barely, etc.) in Southwest Asia entailed a period
during which foragers broadened their resource base to encompass a wide array of foods
that were previously ignored in an attempt to overcome food shortages
 ‘Broad Spectrum Revolution’
o  A broadening of foods included in diet that precedes domestication
o  Proposed by Kent Flannery
o  Once considered an essential first step towards the domestication of grains
o  Not as clear cut as once thought variability and deviation
•
•
Natufians:
▪ Period: ca. 15,000 – 11,600 cal BP.
▪ Features: First sedentary people, small, settled villages around the
Mediterranean forest zone, continued hunting and gathering, stone sickle
blades, and deep stone mortars.
▪ Cooler temps at the end of the Natufian period led to a contraction of
the forest zone and increased mobility
▪ Natufian technologies:
▪ Lunate spearheads and gazelle bone tools indicate wild animals still
hunted
▪ Stone sickle blades and deep stone mortars provide evidence for
harvesting and processing of grains
▪ Use of cereal grains
▪
Brewing beer? provides many advantages - create beverages that
are safe to drink due to fermentation- longer shelf life.
Jericho, Israel:
o Period: ca. 11.5 - 11 KYA (9500-9000 BC).
o Features: Permanently settled village, reliable food base- domesticated cereals
and pulses, huge stone walls(3.5 m) and towers(8.5 m high, 8 m wide) - built in
8300 BC to 8000 bc.
▪ Why ? Defence? Flood protection(mostly)? Rituals maybe?
•
Among the first and oldest towns; pop est. few 100s to few 1000s
• Social control - directed organization and management of labour
• Dead buried under floors
• Plastered heads part of Pre-pottery Neolithic ritual
Broad Spectrum Revolution (BSR)
• Concept: Proposed by Kent Flannery.
o Foragers broadened their resource base to include a wide array of foods, leading
to domestication.
o Variability and deviation observed; not as clear-cut as once thought.
Neolithic Revolution
• Period: Transition to agriculture and sedentary settlements.
• Significance: Introduction of new technologies and social structures, leading to
increased complexity.
• The period of the “origins of agriculture” in southwest Asia is known as the Neolithic
Revolution
• Population increase with the farming of domesticated plants and animals
•
Social Complexity
• Egalitarian Societies: Shared resources, little inequality or private ownership, lack of
centralized/single power, sexual division of labour, Status may be earned (achieved),
Hunter-gatherers and small villages.
• Complex Societies: Ascribed status (rankings based on wealth, political power and social
prestige), surplus accumulation, Established bureaucracy and centralized leadership,
visible archaeological evidence (elite grave goods, town/city districts), Direct and
mobilized labour, Elite monopoly over exotic/prestige, Territorial expansion.
• Population increase, sedentism, food surplus and wealth inequality set the stage for
social complexity
•
Elsewhere(outside of southwest Asia) (timeline a bit different but trends similar in general)
 Similar use of wild plant foods in ways that lead to domestication; longer occupation of
sites; specialized tools for food acquisition and processing
 Europe (Epipaleolithic/Mesolithic)
 North and South America, Mesoamerica (Archaic)
 Asia
 A note on early plant and animal domestication
• Most likely not intentional
•
Came about inadvertently through an unconscious selection of certain plant/animal
characteristics.
Synthesis Points
•
•
•
•
By 15 kya Homo sapiens had reached every habitable continent on Earth; likely driven
by behavioural flexibility and adaptability in combination with environmental and
climate factors.
The late Pleistocene and early Holocene (ca. 22,000 – 12,000/10,000 BP) was a time of
dramatic climate and environmental change that challenged communities. Following
glacial retreat/melting at the end of the last ice age and the Pleistocene-Holocene
boundary, sea level rose, low-lying coastal areas were flooded, and habitat and
resources were altered.
At the end of the Pleistocene, many peoples relied on a wide variety of wild plant and
animal resources, some of which would later be domesticated. This has been
proposed as the Broad-Spectrum Revolution that led to food production and plant and
animal domestication.
Settled life (sedentism) occurs hundreds or thousands of years before plants and
animals appear in domesticated forms (dog excepted).
Article Summary: Europe's Lost Frontier
The article "Europe's Lost Frontier" explores the efforts of scientists and dedicated amateurs in
reconstructing an ancient, now-submerged landscape known as Doggerland, which once
connected Great Britain and the Netherlands. This region, rich in human history, vanished
beneath the North Sea around 8500 years ago due to rising sea levels.
### Key Points:
1. **Amateur Contributions:**
- Willy van Wingerden, an amateur beachcomber, has found over 500 ancient artifacts on the
Dutch beach Zandmotor, including Neanderthal tools and human remains.
- Her discoveries have contributed significantly to scientific research, earning her a co-author
credit in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).
2. **Zandmotor Project:**
- The Zandmotor is a coastal protection measure created by dredging 21 million cubic meters
of soil from the North Sea and depositing it on the Dutch coast, making ancient soil accessible
for archaeological study.
- This soil dates back to a time when sea levels were 70 meters lower, revealing a prehistoric
landscape inhabited by various human species.
3. **Lost Doggerland:**
- Doggerland, named after the Dogger Banks, was a vast area that stretched from Amsterdam
to Scotland and Norway, rich in forests and river valleys.
- It was a fertile region for hunter-gatherers before it was submerged by rising sea levels.
4. **Scientific Efforts:**
- Scientists are using advanced methods to date artifacts, sequence genetic traces, map the
sea floor, and analyze sediment cores.
- These methods help reconstruct the prehistoric landscape and understand the human
history of the region.
5. **Notable Discoveries:**
- Finds include Neanderthal tools, bone fishhooks, and human skeletal fragments.
- DNA analysis and radiocarbon dating of bones suggest multiple phases of human occupation
in Doggerland.
6. **Challenges and Innovations:**
- The North Sea's rough, cold, and busy waters make traditional underwater excavations
difficult.
- Researchers are leveraging data from seismic surveys and new mapping technologies to
explore the submerged landscape.
7. **Human Adaptation to Climate Change:**
- Studies show how ancient populations adapted to rising sea levels by changing their diets
from land animals to freshwater fish.
- Researchers are tracing the impact of sudden sea-level rise events, such as the draining of
Lake Agassiz, on human settlements.
8. **Future Research:**
- The techniques developed in the North Sea could be applied to other submerged
landscapes, such as Beringia and Oceania, to answer broader questions about human migration
and development.
The article highlights the importance of both amateur contributions and scientific
advancements in uncovering the hidden history of ancient European landscapes.
### Summary of Key Points on "Pleistocene Overkill and North American Mammalian
Extinctions"
The article by David J. Meltzer, "Pleistocene Overkill and North American Mammalian
Extinctions," addresses the ongoing debate about the causes of the mass extinction of large
mammals in North America at the end of the Pleistocene epoch. Here are the key points and
findings:
1. **Hypothesis of Human-Induced Overkill**:
- The overkill hypothesis suggests that Clovis hunters, who arrived in North America around
11,000 years ago, were responsible for the rapid extinction of 37 genera of large mammals. This
idea is based on the correlation between the arrival of humans and the disappearance of these
species.
- Proponents argue that even if kill sites are rare, the archaeological evidence is more
substantial than expected given the vast time and space involved.
2. **Alternative Explanations**:
- Climate Change: The end of the Pleistocene was marked by significant climatic shifts,
including the melting of ice sheets, which altered habitats and ecosystems. However, it remains
challenging to link specific climate changes to extinctions due to the complexity of these events.
- Habitat Fragmentation and Loss: Changing climates could have fragmented habitats,
reducing the range and carrying capacity of megafauna.
- Competition and Community Changes: The dissolution of co-evolved communities and
changing competitive relationships among species may have contributed to extinctions.
3. **Evidence and Challenges**:
- Fossil Records: The majority of extinct genera were large herbivores, but several large
mammals survived. There is also evidence of differing extinction patterns across taxa,
suggesting multiple contributing factors.
- Ancient DNA (aDNA): Advances in aDNA analysis allow for detailed studies of past
populations and their responses to environmental changes. This technology holds promise for
disentangling the roles of climate change and human activity in these extinctions.
- Simulation Models: Models of human hunting and climate impact have limitations, often
requiring simplifications that can obscure the complexity of real-world events.
4. **Debate on Overkill Evidence**:
- The rarity of kill sites and direct evidence of human hunting is a significant point of
contention. Critics argue that the lack of evidence undermines the overkill hypothesis.
- Proponents maintain that the rapid and widespread extinction pattern aligns with human
predation pressures, especially on naive prey species.
5. **Implications and Future Research**:
- The debate continues due to the difficulty of isolating a single cause for the extinctions.
Integrating multiple lines of evidence, including high-resolution paleoecological data and
further aDNA studies, is essential for a comprehensive understanding.
- The implications of this research extend beyond understanding past extinctions, offering
insights into modern conservation challenges and the potential impacts of current and future
climate change.
The article highlights the complexity of the Pleistocene extinctions and the need for
interdisciplinary approaches to unravel the interplay of human activities and environmental
changes .
### Summary: What Really Happened to Mammoths and Other Ice Age Giants
Niki Rust's article on the BBC explores the debated causes behind the extinction of Ice Age
megafauna, including mammoths, toward the end of the Pleistocene epoch. This extinction
event, which saw the disappearance of many large species, is still not fully understood, with
scientists divided over the primary drivers.
### Key Points:
1. **Mass Extinctions Overview**:
- Earth's history has seen five major mass extinctions, with some scientists arguing that we are
currently experiencing a sixth mass extinction, driven by human activities.
- Overhunting, overfishing, and habitat destruction are significant contributors to the current
rapid extinction rate.
2. **Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction**:
- This event occurred tens of thousands of years ago and predominantly affected large
animals (megafauna).
- The extinction patterns varied globally, complicating the identification of a single cause.
3. **Climate Change Hypothesis**:
- As the last ice age ended, global temperatures rose by about 6°C, significantly impacting
larger animals with thick fur coats.
- The climate became more variable, with shifts from wet to dry conditions, further stressing
megafauna.
4. **Hunting Hypothesis**:
- The hunting hypothesis, dating back to the 1870s, suggests that human overhunting was
responsible for the extinctions.
- This theory gained prominence through the work of Paul S. Martin in the 1960s, especially
regarding the American and Australian megafaunal extinctions.
5. **Regional Differences**:
- In Australia and New Zealand, the evidence strongly supports the overhunting hypothesis.
The arrival of humans led to rapid hunting of naïve fauna and habitat destruction through fire.
- In Eurasia, the extinctions spanned too long a period to be solely attributed to overhunting,
suggesting other factors at play.
6. **Alternative Theories**:
- Some scientists propose that diseases, possibly carried by humans or their animals,
contributed to the extinctions.
- The complexity of the extinction event implies multiple interacting causes, including climate
change, overhunting, and disease.
### Conclusion:
The extinction of Ice Age megafauna, such as mammoths, remains a complex and contested
topic. While climate change and human hunting are the primary hypotheses, regional variations
and additional factors like disease complicate the narrative. Further research is needed to fully
understand the interplay of these factors in the Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions.