Be sure to focus on the theories of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Bronfenbrenner, and the learning and
Information theories of Human Development. It will be important to take note of each of the
theories presented in the textbook and be able to compare/contrast them in terms of their
distinct features. For example, are they continuous theories of change or discontinuous theories
of change? I often find creating a compare/contrast chart or table works as a helpful tool for
visual learners.
Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often
occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal
sequence. These are also called the “classic” theories. At each stage of development, children
and adults have different qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume
development is more discontinuous.
Continuity theorists assume development is a more slow and gradual process known as
continuous development. For instance, continuity theorist would argue that adults don’t have
new skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child. Brain
development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more developed
skills as well. These are also called incremental theories.
Pavlov = continuous
Information processing = continuous
Skinner and bandura = continuous = behaviorist, learning theories
The brain and its functions are never static, they are continually changing – this is called
Neuroplasticity. In addition, there can be time-dependent (critical/sensitive periods), regionspecific windows of opportunity for rapid neural reorganization, such as critical (sensitive)
periods of development. But these also exist alongside continuing plasticity as we learn, grow,
develop, and change. We see that physiologically, there are critical periods of development and
this is no more obvious than in children who are born with cataracts on their eyes. For example,
if a child is born with cataracts on their eyes, and they don't get those cataracts removed before
a certain period, usually in the first few months of life, they could end up being blind forever.
The idea of critical or sensitive periods emerged from the field of Ethology. Ethology is the
scientific study of animal behavior, particularly in natural environments. Charles Darwin could be
thought of as one of the earliest Ethologists and his research on natural selection and human
development was foundational to the human development research. The modern scientific
discipline of Behavioral Ecology extends observations of animal behavior by studying how
such behavior is controlled and how it develops, evolves, and contributes to survival and
reproductive success. Thus, evolution, ecology, and ethology principles have been extrapolated
to human behavior. When research in these areas is extrapolated to human beings and culture
it is called Sociobiology.
In the field of sociobiology, human behavior, like that of other species, is the result of
interactions between genes and environment. We will learn more in lesson two about genetics,
but biologists study the ways both genes and the environment influence the development of
behavioral phenotypes.
Behavior that is developmentally fixed is called innate behavior and is under strong genetic
influence. This behavior does not need to be practiced and it is linked to our survival. In line with
this idea is the theory of critical periods. That is, critical periods are deemed important when
certain environmental stimuli are necessary for normal development. The idea of Critical or
Sensitive Periods in development emerged from the field work of ethologist, Konrad Lorenz.
Critical/Sensitive Periods are a limited phase in an animal’s (or human’s) development that is
the only time when certain behaviors or physical functions can be created and/or learned. For
Lorenz, imprinting was a critical period of development, a type of behavior that included both
learning and innate components. Lorenz showed that when baby geese spent the first few hours
of their life with him, they imprinted on him as their parent.