Anth-121 study guide
1. Describe ethnography and the history of ethnographic fieldwork...
Ethnography is the in-depth, systematic study and description of a culture, typically produced
through immersive, long-term fieldwork. Early anthropology was dominated by 'armchair
anthropology,' where scholars like Edward Tylor and James Frazer relied on secondhand
reports from missionaries, travelers, and colonial officials. This approach was criticized for
ethnocentrism and lack of direct engagement. The discipline shifted in the early 20th century
with figures such as Franz Boas and Alfred Kroeber, who emphasized 'salvage ethnography' to
document cultures perceived to be disappearing due to colonization. Bronislaw Malinowski
revolutionized fieldwork through participant observation during his work in the Trobriand Islands,
advocating for living among the people studied and learning their language. Modern
ethnography builds on these foundations with reflexivity, collaboration, and multi-sited
approaches.
2. As an anthropologist, who are you ethically responsible to...
According to the American Anthropological Association’s (AAA) Code of Ethics, anthropologists
are primarily responsible to the people they study, ensuring that their work does no harm,
respects privacy, and includes informed consent. They also have responsibilities to the scholarly
community, funding agencies, and the public. Key ethical issues include protecting vulnerable
populations, avoiding exploitation, and being transparent about research goals. Over the past
century, fieldwork has evolved to emphasize reciprocity, involving participants in research
design, and returning results to the community. For example, collaborations with Indigenous
groups now often involve shared authorship and control over how information is disseminated.
3. Describe and define the four central concepts of anthropology...
The four central concepts of anthropology are culture, holism, plasticity, and participant
observation. Culture refers to the learned, shared systems of meaning, behavior, and belief that
shape human life. Holism is the approach of studying humans by considering all
aspects—biological, cultural, historical, and linguistic—together. Plasticity refers to humans’
biological and cultural adaptability, allowing them to survive in diverse environments. Participant
observation is a key method where researchers immerse themselves in the community they
study to gain an insider perspective. These concepts helped anthropology push back against
19th-century ideas of scientific racism and unilineal cultural evolution by emphasizing cultural
diversity, adaptation, and the importance of context.
4. What is the relationship between race and biology...
In modern anthropology, race is understood as a socially constructed category rather than a
fixed biological reality. Scientific racism in the 19th century, promoted by figures like Samuel
George Morton, attempted to use flawed biological measures to justify inequality. Biology shows
that human variation is continuous (clinal) and that traits like skin color are adaptations to
environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation. For example, darker skin evolved in
equatorial regions to protect against UV damage, while lighter skin evolved in higher latitudes to
aid vitamin D production. This evidence undermines the notion of discrete racial groups,
highlighting that race is a cultural way of categorizing human diversity.
5. Describe the four levels of socio-cultural integration...
The four levels of socio-cultural integration are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states. Bands are
small, egalitarian groups like the San of southern Africa, with leadership based on consensus.
Tribes are larger, kin-based societies such as the Nuer of South Sudan, where leaders gain
influence through skill and prestige rather than formal authority. Chiefdoms, like those of
pre-contact Hawaii, are ranked societies with hereditary chiefs who redistribute resources.
States, such as modern Canada, are stratified, centralized political systems with codified laws.
These levels differ in population size, power distribution, and legal systems, ranging from
informal conflict resolution in bands to formal legal institutions in states.
6. Why do humans give gifts?...
Gift-giving serves to create and maintain social relationships, build alliances, and establish
obligations. According to Marcel Mauss, gifts operate under the rules of reciprocity: one must
give, receive, and return. Failure to reciprocate can damage relationships or status. The potlatch
ceremonies of Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast are an example, where chiefs
distribute goods to demonstrate wealth and reinforce social hierarchies while also redistributing
resources to the community.
7. Who do we consider kin?...
Kinship defines who counts as family, shaping inheritance, marriage rules, residence patterns,
and social obligations. Kin can be related by blood, marriage, or through fictive ties such as
adoption. Anthropologists study kinship to understand social organization, as family structures
influence politics, economics, and identity. For example, in matrilineal societies like the
Minangkabau of Indonesia, property and descent pass through the mother’s line, affecting
gender roles and authority.
8. What is the difference between sex and gender?...
Sex refers to biological differences such as chromosomes, reproductive systems, and
hormones, while gender is a cultural construct that defines roles, behaviors, and identities.
Many aspects of gender, such as clothing styles, division of labor, and expected behaviors, are
shaped by cultural norms. Cross-cultural examples, such as the hijra in India or TwoSpirit
individuals among Indigenous peoples of North America, show that gender systems vary widely
and are not limited to a binary male/female framework.
9. Compare and contrast the Mosuo “walking marriage”...
The Mosuo of China practice 'walking marriages,' in which men visit their partners at night but
return to their own maternal households during the day. Children remain with the mother’s
family, and inheritance follows the matrilineal line. In contrast, the Western nuclear family
typically involves cohabiting spouses and children, with neolocal residence and bilateral
inheritance. Recent social changes, such as increased divorce rates in the West and tourism in
Mosuo regions, have influenced both systems, introducing new economic and relational
dynamics.
10. What is the relationship between race and biology (again)?
The relationship between race and biology is that while human biological variation exists, it does
not align neatly with racial categories. Traits such as skin color, lactose tolerance, or sickle cell
prevalence are influenced by environmental and genetic factors, not 'race.' Race is socially
constructed, with meanings and categories that change over time and place. Biology
demonstrates shared ancestry and continuous variation, undermining the validity of biological
race classifications.
11. Define globalization and the five “scapes”...
Globalization is the process by which people, goods, ideas, and capital move across borders,
creating interconnected economies and cultures. Arjun Appadurai identifies five 'scapes':
ethnoscapes (migration of people), mediascapes (flow of media and images), technoscapes
(movement of technology), financescapes (flow of money), and ideoscapes (spread of political
ideas). A product like a T-shirt engages all five scapes—from cotton production in one country,
to manufacturing in another, to global advertising campaigns and consumer purchase.
12. Define the four most common elements of religion...
The four most common elements of religion are: a belief system that explains the world and
humanity’s place in it; a community of believers who share these values; rituals that enact
beliefs and foster group cohesion; and supernatural beings or forces that are central to the
belief system. For example, in Christianity, the belief system is based on the teachings of Jesus,
the community is the church, rituals include baptism and communion, and the supernatural
being is God.
13. Western gender ideologies and “Man the Hunter”...
The 'Man the Hunter' hypothesis suggested that hunting was the primary driver of human
evolution and that men’s roles as hunters shaped male dominance, while women’s roles as
gatherers kept them in subordinate positions. Recent archaeological and ethnographic evidence
has challenged this model, showing that women in many societies hunted and that gathering
often provided the majority of calories. This undermines the binary gender assumptions
embedded in the myth and demonstrates that gender roles are flexible and culturally
constructed.
14. Planning a research project in another community...
Before entering the field, an anthropologist must secure research permits, ethics approval, and
funding, as well as prepare by learning the local language and customs. While in the field, they
must build rapport, conduct participant observation, and maintain ethical standards such as
informed consent. After leaving, they should share results with the community, acknowledge
contributions, and, where possible, maintain ongoing relationships to ensure reciprocity.
15. What did early anthropologists study and how has this changed over
time?
Early anthropologists engaged in proto-anthropology, where travelers and missionaries recorded
observations without systematic methods. This evolved into 'armchair anthropology,' with
scholars analyzing secondhand accounts. During the colonial era, anthropology often served
colonial interests, with debates between evolutionism (societies progress through stages) and
diffusionism (traits spread between cultures). Urgent and salvage anthropology emerged to
record cultures threatened by colonization. From 1900 to 1950, major schools of thought such
as functionalism and structuralism dominated. Post1950s, anthropology shifted toward
reflexivity, critical theory, and collaborative, multi-sited ethnographies.
Key Terms & Concepts
Cultural relativism – Understanding another culture in its own terms without judgment; avoids
ethnocentrism. Example: Respecting arranged marriages in cultures where they are the norm.
Cultural determinism – The belief that culture largely determines human behavior, rather than
biology. Example: Gender roles shaped by cultural norms.
Ethnocentrism – Belief that one’s own culture is superior; judging others by your own standards.
Example: Assuming Western medicine is “better” than traditional healing.
Four fields of anthropology – Cultural anthropology, archaeology, biological anthropology,
linguistic anthropology.
Culture – Learned, shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and knowledge of a group.
Holism – Studying humans by considering all aspects: cultural, biological, historical, and
linguistic.
Plasticity – Human capacity to adapt biologically and culturally to environmental changes.
Evolutionism – 19th-century idea that societies progress through stages from “primitive” to
“civilized” (now rejected).
Diffusionism – Idea that cultural traits spread from one society to another.
Salvage anthropology – Recording and preserving knowledge of cultures believed to be
disappearing.
Functionalism – Culture functions to meet needs of individuals (Malinowski).
Structural-functionalism – Institutions maintain social order (Radcliffe-Brown).
French structuralism – Focus on underlying structures of human thought (Lévi-Strauss).
Mauss and gifting – Gifts create social obligations (reciprocity).
Cultural materialism – Material conditions (technology, environment) shape culture (Harris).
Marxist anthropology – Focus on power, inequality, class.
Symbolic anthropology – Culture seen as a system of symbols (Geertz).
Interpretivism – Understanding meaning people give to their actions.
Participant observation – Living with and observing a community while participating in daily life.
Ethnography – Detailed description of a culture; first modern ethnography: Bronislaw
Malinowski’s work in the Trobriand Islands.
Culture shock – Disorientation when experiencing a different culture.
Microcultures – Smaller cultural groups within a larger society.
Deductive – Start with hypothesis, test with data.
Inductive – Build theory from observations.
Quantitative – Numeric data; example: census data.
Qualitative – Descriptive data; example: interview transcripts.
Emic – Insider’s perspective.
Etic – Outsider’s analytical perspective.
Globalization – Increasing interconnectedness of cultures, economies, and politics worldwide.
Arjun Appadurai’s Scapes – Ethnoscapes (people, migration), Mediascapes (media, imagery),
Technoscapes (technology transfer), Financescapes (capital flow), Ideoscapes (political ideas).
Glocalization – Adapting global products/practices to fit local culture.
Syncretism – Blending of cultural/religious traditions.
Candomblé – Afro-Brazilian religion mixing African, Catholic, and Indigenous beliefs. Fair
trade – Trading system aiming for fair wages and conditions for producers.
Multi-sited ethnographies – Research conducted in multiple locations to study global
connections.
Translocal field sites – Studying linked communities across locations.
Human language uniqueness – Displacement (talk about past/future), productivity (create new
words), symbolism.
Phonemes – Smallest units of sound.
Morphemes – Smallest units of meaning.
Syntax – Rules for word order.
Semantics – Meaning of words/phrases.
Pragmatics – Language use in context.
Ethnosemantics – Study of how different cultures categorize concepts.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis – Language shapes thought (linguistic determinism).
Sociolinguistics – How language use varies by social factors.
Symbol – Something that stands for something else (arbitrary).
Standard language vs dialect – Standard is socially accepted norm; dialect is regional/social
variation.
Language variation – Differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar.
Subsistence system – How societies obtain food.
Foodway – Cultural practices related to food.
Carrying capacity – Max population environment can support.
Immediate return vs delayed return systems – Use resources right away vs store for later.
Four modes of subsistence – Foraging, horticulture, pastoralism, agriculture.
Exceptions to forager standard – Mixed economies, settled foragers.
Pastoralism – Herding livestock; animals for food, trade, status.
Horticulture vs agriculture – Small-scale, low-input vs large-scale, intensive.
Domestication impacts – Increased population, environmental change.
Forager environmental impact – Low compared to agriculture.
Modes of consumption – Minimalist vs consumerist.
Subsistence vs poverty – Living off the land vs lacking resources.
Subsistence & globalization – Mixed economies
Fair trade & El Cacao – Cocoa farmers getting fair pay.
Globalization pushback – Local food movements, co-ops.
Advantages/disadvantages of globalization – Adv: access to goods, ideas; Disadv: loss of local
culture.
Fair trade as resistance – Benefits producers, sometimes costs more for consumers.
Globalization & fieldwork – More multi-sited studies.
Quinoa case study – Could study in Bolivia (producers) and U.S. (consumers); interview
farmers, buyers.
Types of descent – Unilineal (matrilineal, patrilineal) vs bilateral.
Endogamy vs exogamy – Marry within vs outside group.
Marriage as cultural – Rules vary by society.
Kinship relations – Blood, marriage, fictive ties.
Kinship chart – Diagram mapping relationships.
Kinds of marriage – Monogamy, polygyny, polyandry.
Kinds of families – Nuclear, extended, stem, joint, step/blended.
Status – Social position.
Role – Expected behavior of a status.
Dowry vs bridewealth – Bride’s family gives goods vs groom’s family gives goods.
Matriarchy vs patriarchy – Power held by women vs men.
Clan – Descent group claiming common ancestor.
Serial monogamy – Multiple spouses over lifetime.
Polygyny – Man with multiple wives.
Sororal polygyny – Wives are sisters.
Fraternal polyandry – Brothers share a wife.
Sororate marriage – Man marries wife’s sister after her death.
Levirate marriage – Widow marries husband’s brother.
Household/domestic group – People sharing residence/economy.
Families of orientation vs procreation – Born into vs formed by marriage/children.
Residence patterns – Neolocal, patrilocal, matrilocal, avunculocal.
Inheritance patterns – Rules for passing property/status.
Same-sex marriage – Marriage between partners of same gender.
Adoption – Non-biological kinship creation.
Band – Small, egalitarian, informal leaders.
Tribe – Larger, egalitarian, leaders by prestige.
Chiefdom – Ranked society, hereditary leaders.
State – Stratified, centralized power.
Power vs authority vs legitimacy – Ability to influence, recognized right to rule, and acceptance
of power.
Political integration types – Egalitarian, ranked, stratified.
Integration mechanisms – Age sets, feasting, marriage, lineage.
Reverse dominance – Community prevents leaders from dominating.
Positive vs negative reinforcement – Rewards vs punishments.
Social classes – Stratified groups.
Big man – Influential leader by persuasion.
Bachelor associations/men’s houses – Age-grade male groups.
Marcel Mauss – Gift theory.
Law types – Codified law, oaths, ordeals.
Conflict resolution – Raids, feuds.
Potlatch – Gift feast to display wealth and gain prestige.
Caste system – Hereditary social stratification.
State vs nation – Political entity vs cultural identity.
Race – Socially constructed category based on perceived differences.
Biological basis? – No discrete races; human variation is continuous (clines).
Social construction – Race categories vary by society.
Impact on society – Discrimination, inequality.
Race vs ethnicity – Race = perceived biology; ethnicity = shared culture/ancestry.
Sports & stereotypes – Assumptions about abilities.
Reification – Treating abstract ideas as real.
Skin colour – Adaptation to UV radiation.
U.S. vs Canada – U.S. assimilation focus vs Canada’s multiculturalism.
Key figures – Linnaeus – Early racial classification; Blumenbach – “Five races” concept; Morton
– Craniometry; Galton – Eugenics.
Cline – Gradual genetic variation over geography.
Pigmentocracy – Social hierarchy by skin tone.
Ethnogenesis – Formation of new ethnic groups.
Acculturation – Cultural change from contact.
Assimilation vs multiculturalism vs amalgamation – Absorb into dominant culture vs coexist vs
merge cultures.
Scientific racism – Using false science to justify racism.
Racial formation – How race is created and changed socially.
Phrenology – Measuring skulls to “predict” traits (discredited).
Gender vs sex – Gender is cultural; sex is biological.
Social construction of gender – Norms shape “male” and “female” roles.
Heteronormativity – Assuming heterosexuality is default.
Gender binary – Two-category system; not universal.
Two-spirit – Indigenous identity blending male/female roles.
Third gender – Cultural category outside male/female.
Menstrual views – Ranging from taboo to celebration.
Male/female spheres – Division of labor and space.
Marriage & sexuality regulation – Defines acceptable partners.
LGBTQAIA+ changes – Legalization of same-sex marriage, more rights.
Gender ideology – Beliefs about gender roles.
Biological determinism – Idea biology determines behavior (challenged).
Walking marriage – Mosuo practice; partners don’t live together permanently.
Religion – Beliefs/practices about supernatural.
Magic – Manipulating supernatural forces.
Sorcerers – Use magic for harm.
Sacred vs profane – Holy vs everyday.
Collective effervescence – Shared emotional energy in rituals (Durkheim).
Cosmology – Beliefs about universe.
Ritual – Formalized symbolic acts.
Animatism – Belief in impersonal spiritual power.
Mana – Spiritual force.
Animism – Belief in spirits in natural objects.
Monotheism vs polytheism – One god vs many gods.
Reincarnation – Rebirth after death.
Elements of religion – Belief system, community, rituals, supernatural beings.
Rites – Passage (life stages), intensification (group renewal), crisis (healing).
Specialists – Shamans, priests, prophets.