The Campidoglio of Michelangelo
The design and characteristics of the Campidoglio in the Roman urban context
Rome: Urban history and architecture
Prof. Vitale Zanchettin
Student: Sun Haihang - 300624
Nationality: China
1. The historical development of the Campidoglio
1.1 From prehistoric times to the Roman Empire
The Campidoglio is the smallest but historically most significant of Rome's seven hills.
Archaeological evidence indicates that human settlement in this area dates back to the Bronze Age.
From 753-509 BCE, the Campidoglio gradually transformed from a residential area into a
sacred place. According to legend, Rome's fifth king Tarquinio Prisco began construction of temples
on the hill, and later Tarquinio il Superbo completed the Temple of Jupiter（Tempio di Giove
Capitolino）, establishing the site's status as Rome's religious center.
From 509-27 BCE, the Campidoglio's importance further increased. The Temple of Jupiter
served not only as a place for religious ceremonies but also as a center for political activities. By
this time, the Campidoglio had become a symbol of the Roman Republic, representing Rome's
power and sanctity. (Fig. 1)
Figure 1. The Temple of Jupiter and the Campidoglio area in the model of Imperial Rome at the Museum of
Roman Civilization
1.2 The history of the Campidoglio’s transformation
During the Middle Ages, with a severe decline in urban population, residents mainly
concentrated in the area of Campo Marzio1, and the Campidoglio gradually fell into abandonment.
1 Campo Marzio is the fourth district of Rome, denoted by R. IV. It occupies part of the ancient Roman area
of the same name (Campus Martius). It is located to the north of the Quirinale Hill and the Capitoline Hill.
Most ancient buildings on the Campidoglio were either destroyed or reconstructed.
In ancient times, the Campidoglio 's residential function had transformed into a sacred place,
but later, its function was changed by medieval urban resistance movements. The uprising
transformed the sacred Campidoglio into a secular space. In 1144, the Corsi family's fortifications
on the ruins of the ancient Tabularium became the site of the reconstructed Roman Senate (Palazzo
Senatorio) (Fig. 2) and thus the political center of the city.
The construction of the Palazzo Senatorio changed the spatial relationship between the
Capitoline Hill and its surroundings2, particularly with Forum Romanum. The new palace turned its
back on the direction of the ancient forum, leading to a disconnection with the ancient urban
structure, a change that would profoundly influence the development of the Capitoline Hill in
subsequent centuries.
Figure 2. View from the Roman Forum: the Senator’s palace (middle), 1536 (Marten van Heemskerck,
Kupferstichkabinett in Berlin).
2 It can be seen from Figure 3 that the rebuilt Palazzo Senatorio occupies the middle position of the square
and overlooks the city of Rome.
1.3 From secular place to political center
In the late Middle Ages, the Campidoglio presented a state of decay and disorder. Although the
Palazzo Senatorio had been established, the entire area lacked unified planning and order.
By the 14th century, the condition of the Palazzo Senatorio had deteriorated to such an extent
that the government had to relocate some meetings to the nearby Santa Maria in Aracoeli church
(built in 1290). During this period, the Piazza del Campidoglio had taken shape, facing the Palazzo
Senatorio, becoming a venue for institutional activities.
Comparing plans from the 13th century to 1519 (Fig. 3), it is evident that the Campidoglio
underwent multiple transformations - from its initial role as a religious sanctuary to a defensive
fortress, then to a religious center, and finally to the establishment of the Palazzo Senatorio after
1144.
Figure 3. The plans of the Campidoglio, the 13th century (left), 1298 (middle), and 1519 (right).
Figure 4. The Campidoglio (Stefano Du Pérac, etching, 1568).
2. Michelangelo’s Transformation
2.1 Problems and Challenges
The biggest problem Michelangelo faced at Campidoglio was how to preserve the memory and
character of the place to the greatest extent possible, especially in a disordered, untidy urban
environment, because he was not only a painter and sculptor, but also an architect. His approach
was to respond to the reality of the space, so that his work could affect the atmosphere of the space,
thus finding a balance between preservation and reconstruction.
Michelangelo's idea was to create a harmony, a harmony between the spatial memory of the
historical period and his aesthetic system. The spirit of the place and continuity were embodied
through "allusion" and continuity. Therefore, in the context of the dilapidated old buildings and the
chaotic city, restoring order became the starting point of his design, and this order reached its peak
by relocating the statue of Marcus Aurelius to the center of the square. All subsequent designs and
reconstructions will revolve around the "gathering" of this order.
2.2 Place spirit and spatial order
Michelangelo took a series of measures to reshape the spirit of place and spatial order of the
Campidoglio. He first placed the Statua equestre di Marco Aurelio3 in the center of the square facing
3 The Equus Marci Aurelii Antonini is an ancient Roman gilded bronze sculpture dating from the 2nd century
AD, depicting the Emperor Marcus Aurelius on horseback. Its original location is unknown, but it is known to
have been placed in front of the Lateran Palace since the 8th century AD, and was moved to the Capitoline Square
in Rome in 1538, where it remained for more than four centuries. Since 1990, the statue has been kept in the
St. Peter's Basilica (Fig. 5), establishing a clear spatial center that suggested order. The statue's
position established a central axis between the plaza center and the Senate. Meanwhile, the statue
became an anchor point triggering "collective memory" which reflets the genius loci,4 making the
plaza explicit.
Michelangelo sought an order to control the irregular undulating terrain, chaotic site and old
buildings. He designed a central axis running from the city to the plaza (Fig. 6). He replaced the
three original steps in front of the Palazzo Senatorio with triangular steps. This axis connected to
the grand staircase designed by Michelangelo, creating a gentle transition from city to plaza, solving
the challenge of the hill's elevation difference while rebuilding the Campidoglio's connection to the
city. In addition, the central axis also has an impact on the interior space of the palace: the courtroom,
the hall, the kitchen and the dining room, as well as the steps leading to the next room and more
inner rooms. In the end, we will find that the statues have become the core of creating a "sense of
order", which is a kind of spatial power. The symmetrical layout of Palazzo dei Conservatori and
Palazzo Nuovo has become the boundary of the genius loci, strengthening the spirit of the place
with the central axis as the path (Fig. 4).
Figure 5. Watercolor by Alberto Pisa depicting Piazza del Campidoglio and the original statue
nearby Palazzo dei Conservatori
4 Schulz, C. N. (1980). Genius loci: Towards a phenomenology of architecture. New York: Rizzoli, 17, 22-23.
Figure 6. The main axis of the Campidoglio and the parallel balustrades of the Cordonata
2.3 Spatial organization of the square
Symmetry and harmony were core concepts in Michelangelo's design. He planned for the
Palazzo dei Conservatori and Palazzo Nuovo to have symmetrical layouts, jointly forming spatial
boundaries on both sides of the plaza.
Michelangelo constructed a space that connects the hilltop to the city based on strong principles
of symmetry and axis (Fig. 7). His first step was to build a new symmetrical structure, the Palazzo
Nuovo, in response to the existing Palazzo dei Conservatori. The design of the New Palace can be
said to be the most innovative part of the entire project, and its layout is entirely in service of the
symmetrical aesthetic principle of the space as a whole.
This symmetry, and their repeated facades and interior spaces, transform the site into a unified
space. The two buildings frame the square into a trapezoid, strengthening the spatial perspective
relationship from the visitor's perspective.
Figure 7. Campidoglio, Left building: Palazzo Nuovo.
3. The Campidoglio and Roma’s urban planning
Michelangelo closely linked the design of the square to the city of Rome, as the last and most
important part of the order construction（Fig. 8）, and it can be said to be the cornerstone of the
entire project. Obviously, Michelangelo regarded this square as part of the inner space of the city,
an open space surrounded by four sides.
The square is surrounded by three buildings - Palazzo Senatorio, Palazzo dei Conservatori and
Palazzo Nuovo, creating a clearly defined and inward-focused spatial environment. This approach
not only enhances the spatial atmosphere of the square, but also gives it an interior space similar to
a "room".
The square is connected to the city through the Cordonata steps - a wide and gently sloping
ramp guided by railings on both sides. This axis rises slowly from the daily streets below the city,
leading citizens to the core of the square, allowing people to complete the transition from "urban
public space" to "urban power core" in the process of gradual ascent.
Therefore, it can be said that the Capitoline Square is both an architectural design project and
a manifestation of urban planning ideas, which cleverly combines closure and openness, order and
flow, power and publicity.
Figure 8.
The direction of the Compidoglio on the map of Rome
Bibliography
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Ackerman, James S. The Architecture of Michelangelo. London: A. Zwemmer Ltd, 1961.
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4.
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University, 2012.
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