Chapter 1: Introductory Concepts
 Definition of Anatomy and Physiology: Anatomy refers to
structure; physiology refers to function.
 Levels of Organization: Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ,
organ system, and organismal.
 Homeostasis:
o Definition: Maintenance of a stable internal
environment.
o Components: Receptor, control center, effector.
o Feedback Mechanisms: Negative (stabilizing) vs.
Positive (amplifying).
 Directional Terms: Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior,
medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.
 Body Planes and Cavities:
o Planes: Sagittal, coronal, transverse.
o Cavities: Dorsal (cranial, spinal) and ventral
(thoracic, abdominopelvic).
Chapter 2: Basic Biochemistry
 Atoms and Molecules: Structure of an atom (protons,
neutrons, electrons).
 Chemical Bonds: Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.
 Organic Molecules:
o Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, disaccharides,
polysaccharides.
o Lipids: Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.
o Proteins: Amino acids,
primary/secondary/tertiary/quaternary structures.
o Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA.
 Enzymes: Biological catalysts, factors affecting enzyme
activity.
 pH and Buffers:
o pH scale (0-14): Acidity and alkalinity.
o Role of buffers in maintaining homeostasis.
Chapter 3: Cellular Structure and Function
 Cell Theory: Basic unit of life.
 Cell Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer, membrane proteins,
selective permeability.
 Organelles and Their Functions:
o Nucleus: DNA storage, control center.
o Mitochondria: Energy production (ATP).
o Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough (protein
production), smooth (lipid synthesis).
o Golgi Apparatus: Packaging and transport.
o Lysosomes/Peroxisomes: Waste breakdown.
o Cytoskeleton: Shape, support, movement.
 Transport Mechanisms:
o Passive: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.
o Active: Pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis.
 Cell Division:
o Mitosis: Phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase).
o Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.
Chapter 4: Tissue Types
 Four Tissue Types:
o Epithelial: Covering, lining, glandular.
o Connective: Support, protection, storage (bone,
cartilage, blood).
o Muscle: Skeletal, cardiac, smooth.
o Nervous: Neurons and neuroglia.
 Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue:
o Cellularity, polarity, avascularity, regeneration.
Connective Tissue Components:
o Fibers: Collagen, elastin, reticular.
o Cells: Fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes.
 Types of Muscle Tissue:
o Skeletal: Voluntary, striated.
o Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs.
o Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated.
Chapter 5: The Integumentary System
 Functions: Protection, thermoregulation, sensation, vitamin
D synthesis.
 Layers of Skin:
o Epidermis: Stratified squamous epithelium,
keratinized.
o Dermis: Connective tissue, blood vessels, nerve
endings.
o Hypodermis: Subcutaneous fat layer.
 Skin Appendages: Hair, nails, sweat glands
(eccrine/apocrine), sebaceous glands.
 Skin Repair and Healing: Inflammation, proliferation,
remodeling.
Chapter 6: The Skeletal System
 Functions: Support, protection, movement, mineral
storage, blood cell formation.
 Bone Structure:
o Compact bone: Osteons, lamellae, central canals.
o Spongy bone: Trabeculae, marrow spaces.
 Bone Cells: Osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts.
 Bone Development:
o Intramembranous ossification: Flat bones.
o Endochondral ossification: Long bones.
 Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton:
o Axial: Skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage.
o Appendicular: Limbs, girdles.
Chapter 7: The Muscular System
 Muscle Functions: Movement, posture, heat production.
 Muscle Anatomy:
o Structure: Muscle fibers, myofibrils, sarcomeres.
o Sliding Filament Theory: Actin, myosin interaction.
 Muscle Contraction:
o Neuromuscular junction: Role of acetylcholine.
o ATP and calcium ions in contraction.
 Types of Muscle Contractions: Isometric vs. isotonic.
 Major Muscle Groups: Biceps, triceps, quadriceps,
hamstrings, etc.
Chapter 10: The Nervous System
 Divisions of the Nervous System:
o Central (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
o Peripheral (PNS): Cranial and spinal nerves.
o Autonomic (ANS): Sympathetic and
parasympathetic.
 Neuron Structure: Dendrites, axon, soma.
 Neuroglia Cells: Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann
cells.
 Action Potential: Resting potential, depolarization,
repolarization.
 Reflex Arc: Sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron.
Chapter 11: Special Senses
 Types of Senses:
o General: Touch, temperature, pain.
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Special: Vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilibrium.
Vision:
o Eye anatomy: Retina, lens, cornea, optic nerve.
o Photoreceptors: Rods (low light), cones (color).
Hearing:
o Ear anatomy: Outer, middle, inner (cochlea,
semicircular canals).
o Mechanism of hearing: Sound waves to neural
impulses.
Taste and Smell:
o Chemoreceptors: Taste buds, olfactory receptors.
o Connection to limbic system.
Equilibrium: Role of vestibular apparatus.