Tawheed
Chapter 1 Atomic structure
Electro
Electronegativity
Increasing
M
negativity
Atomic
Radius
V
Increasi
Trends
group
v a
rg
Seen
IE
Each
successive
nuclear
charge
element
gains
The Atomic radius decreases
Radius
S
an
increases
,
election shell down the
group
moving Across Any period
resulting in
charge
effect does not
change significantly
Shielding
Nuclear
the p# increases
Atsmic
Atomic
Atomic Radius
in
the Atomic Radius
,
Decreasing
+
across
successive
increasing shielding from
elements
in
a
period
charge is determined by the balance of protons and elections The #st elections
.
in
=
Neutral atom
# of
protons
Electron Configuration
Na Is Is Ip"3s'
Valence
election
:
Period #
Orbitals are
a
region
of
space where
Aufbau
Principle
The Aufban
principle states that electrons
Level
1
1S
.
n=
2
S
n
3
&
n
=
W
>
=
4
n=
n=
S
P
·
·
-
·
-
are
an
election is likely to be found.
filled into
atomic sobitals
starting from the lowest energy
Pauli Exclusion principle
The Exclusion
principle states
The rule states that
that
funds rule of Maximum
Before the double
will
have identical
same
orbital
of
any
total spin ,
of
givensbital must
a
quantum
numbers
Anti-parallel
be
Multiplicity
occupation
for the maximization
elections
two
only two elections may occupy the
paired elections occupying
The two
he
orbital
every
,
all elections in
a
orbital in
a
must be
subshell
orbital must
single occupied
be
singly occupied
parrallel/same spin
Heisenberg's Uncertainty
~
double occupancy
14
Is
14
f
1
2p4
25
Parrallel Spin
Electron Configuration Exception
These two elements
Co : 1s2252
are
only exceptions to thei configuration
the
Copper and chromium are
one
.
e-from
reaching
more
a
stable state
Ip"3323pP4s'3d
election promotion
occurs
to
help achieve
a
more
stable state
Cu :
Is2s"Ip"353p'4s'Ed
Electron
Configuration of Ions
Na : Is
"2s22p63s'
Nat :
My Is "2s
Is "Is"Ep
2 +
My
Isselectric
↑ Effective Nuclear
[p"3523p
p"-Is"2s22p3s23
P : Is " Is
3
Effective Nuclear
atom
Al : /s 25
2
p
5 :
(
as
a
result
of ↓election
Is Cs"Ip'3s23p4
(i
E
·
a
as
result of
e
BL
Chlorine-3) Anion
1s2s"2p'33pt
34s
16
+2
↓
-
4 fe
shielding
: Is 25
32 /s 25 [p3s3pt
Charge
I p63323p
Al3 +: /s "Is2 Ip
Series
Charge
6
~
Is 2s22p63 ,
1s22s 2 p'3 323p4
:
Ip63s23pS
/s22s22p"35236
of Orbital
Shape
Sorbitats
spherical
in
shape
found in each principle
energyLevel
-
-
↑radius
-
higher energy levels
in
Porbital
shaped
dumbell
-
three
in
each
Ionization Energy
the
amount
only
for
of
Cation
from
level
energy
to
needed
energy
Cul
2
remove
an
election
first IE
the
energy
needed to
gaseous atom
X
Tcgs
form
to
+
X
Xg
>
remove
(g)
X
of
mole
one
mole of election
one
gaseous
from
one
monspositive
mole
of
isns
+ e
cy
+
e
Second IE
the
of
amount
of
energY
needed
monopositive gaseous ion
Increase
&E
attributed
to
to
form
to
one
role
of election
from
mole
of
dipositive
gaseous ion
remove
TENC and
one
lower
Na)(
a
Ish
inner
energy
Is
shell closes
~
s
to
the nucleus
distance
from
nucleus
one
note
Chapter 2: Stoichiometry
unified Atomic Mass
12th of
a
neutral unbound carbon-12
,
I unified atomic
unit
mass
In
=
Relative Atomic Mass
Ar-Weighted Average
of atoms
in
a
unified Atomic
=
1 66
.
isstope
ground state
.
x10kg
given sample of
Mass
at
an
element
unit
Relative Isotopic Mass
The mass of an isotope relative
to
Tu
Relative Molecular Mass
The ratio
of the weighted
average mass
of
a
molecule of molecular
The Mol
I mol of substance contain the
same
number of
trogadro Constant
1 mo) x 6 82x12 particles
.
Empirical formula
12
n:
8y C
.
2
,
IgH
.
,
85
.
IgBr
/ 866
2 08
1 865
I
2
1
.
.
Find nols
.
+
by lowest mol
CH2Br
Combustion Data Formula
CxHy
+
X
+*
O2
(xHy + (x 24)82
+
zocm
locm
↓
1 +
4
y
-
<
XC82t H28
X(82 +
loam
2
4
=
=
CH4
=
2
1
4
+
282
=
(82 + 2 H20
H2d
particles
as
in
12g of "(
compound to
tu
Chemical bonding
Ionic Bonding
The electrostatic force of attraction between Cations and Anions in an
Covalent bonding
When the Valence
electrons and
Ionic
Crystal Lattice
of two atoms are shared Electrostatic attraction between
electrons
shared
.
.
the atomic Nuclei involved
der Waals' forces
an
physical properties ofCompounds
Weak forces between molecules that determine
,
Umbrella term for All forces
London
dispersion Force (Instantaneous Induced dipole) Exist between all molecules and atsms
:
-
The electron
charge Cloud in non-polar molecules
Temporary Dipoles Arise which
can
are
Increases With : Number of electrons Number of Contact
electrons
,
bonding Exist in Polar molecules
:
long
neighboring molecule resulting in Attraction
.
as
they have Permanent dipoles In Molecules with equal
.
Polarity
Hydrogen bonding Stronger form of permanent dipole Requires Hydrogen bonding
:
Ions form when
to
area
stronger than idid
Pd-Pd is
increases with:
on
one
points
,
Permanent diple
always moving and when they stay
dipole moments
induce
.
,
atsms
gain
lose
or
one or
more
with CN, O, f)
electrons
Cations form When atsms lose electrons
Anions form when atoms
gain electrons
the
how
Charge depends
electrons are lost or
gained.
The
strong force of Attraction between positive ions and negative ions in
on
many
an
Ionic
Crystal lattice
result in Ionic Bonds.
crystals have
Ioniz
charge
a
regular repeating pattern resulting in Strong Ionic bonds and overall neutral
.
Structure : Giant Ionic Lattice
,
Crystalline Solids
They have high melting and boiling points
Single Covalent Bonding
When two non-metal atoms Combine
Single Covalent bond
a
,
or
,
bond
they share
pair
.
one
or
more
pairs of electron
.
A shared
pair is called
Some atoms Can bond
bond
together by sharing two pairs of electrons resulting in
a
double covalent
.
T
oh loniin
Examples
Ammonia
NHcf * N** H
,
·
2
-
C82- ::: C :..
-
:
0.:
/
·.::
↑
SO2 :
&
f
!:
:
No2 :
"
f .. N :: j
:
Coordinate
.
Bonding
dative Covalent bond
Aka
bond inWhich both
ACovalent
Donor atom
possess
a
lone
electrons
come
pair of electron
accomadate the electron
lone
from the
and
donor atom
acceptor atom
must have
empty orbitals to
pain
·:
·
41
:
X
::
Exception to Octet Rule
Some
Species Contain
Some Contain
more
(Expanded)
or
less
odd number of electrons
(incompletel than eight electrons in their Outer shell
Pi and
Signa Bond
Covalent bonds
both
-
-
-
The
are
formed when the orbitals of two
nuclei attract pairs of electrons
greater
Results
in
the overlap
,
the
stronger
Hybridization
6-bonds form from direct
overlap
or
neighboring
atoms
overlap so that
between them
the
bond the
adjacent
,
Shorter the bond
overlap
Sigma Bond
O-bond
headon / direct overlapping
orbitals overlap
Can be rotated without
breaking the bond
--bondsc-bonds :
greater overlap
Pi-Bonch
Orbitals
Weaker
overlap sideways
than
.
2-bond
density Concentrated above and below the nuclei
Cannot be rotated without
breaking the bond
Electron
The re-bond
can
overlap endi
on
to make
-bond
.
Hybridization
Requires orbital modification
Energy (vls combine and next closer to the greater orbital
USEPR
character
Theory
The number
and
type of electron pairs around the
Central
am
shape of the molecule
Lone-pair-lone pair Repulsion is greater than lone pair-bond pair which is greater than
determines the
-bond pair.
.
.
Electron pairs
in
a
molecule
180
linear Bonds
bond
:
(1-Be-CI
angle 180 degrees
:
move
as
far apart
as
possible to minimise repulsion
.
bond pain
Trigonal planar
H
:
I
(120
B
Bond Angle : 120
H -H
H
Tetrahedral
Bond
17109 5
.
:
H
Angle 189
:
.
Bond
Angle
H-N-H
i
:
107
:
e
5
Trigonal Pyramidal
C , , H
-
o
Bent :
Bond Angle : 184 S
.
Trigonal Bi-Pyramidal
Bond
Angle
Square
Bond
planar
:
-
9:
:
:
-
Xe""
..
H
.
Bond Angle : 128"
H
· f
H
-H
H
&
c -
-H
molecule
Ethane
on-planar
bond
.
angle
H
100C
H Overlap Sp
of
-H
..
↳
H
H
Angles in ethene molecule
Planar Molecule
All bond
f
H
-
-
H
189 5
IP f
-.
H
Planar Angle :
N
,
A
He --
: 189 5
Angles in
(
-
⑳
Angle 90
Angle
-↓
7
Non-planar :
Bonch
↑
128
Octahedral :
Bond
F
f
128'898
:
Angle
:
Angles 120
=
Electronegativity
The
of
power
a
particular atom that isCovalently bonded to another atom to attract the
bonding pair of electrons toward itself
Bond
Polarity
Unequal sharing of electrons is known
as
Polarized molecules have dipole moments
polarization
Compound With Covalent Character
Ionic
Ionic bonds
can
have
some
Covalent Character due
The Cation attracts the
negative charge of union
The Covalent character
higher when
Small
is
the Cation
-
Distortion of
>
-
has
anion
charge Cloud
high Charge Density (high Charge
,
,
:
Lation is Small
Anion
-
polarization of Ions
Size)
High Lovalent character in Ionic band exist when
-
to
is
large
Cation has
Metallic
high charge
Bonding
A metallic Solid Consists of a lattice of Ions with the
outer electrons
forming
a
sea
of electrons
Electrostatic force of attraction between the delcalized electron Cloud and the metal ions
bonding
Constitute the metallic
Strength of Metallic bonding depends
on
the
size
Charge of the Cation
and
Strength !
Charger Strength
Size:
:
Induced dipole-dipole forces
forces of Attraction between
nonpolar molecules
Affected by
1)
number of electrons
2)
Shape of molecules Branching Reduces Strength
in
a
molecule
:
Ye
:
↑Id-Id
:
Hydrogen Bonding
strongest intermolecular bond Very Strong dipole moment
,
Hehasthehighestboiling
point of all the
the three
hydrides becaus
see
Structure
Giant Covalent
Graphite
Lots ofCovalent bonds
,
Graphite has high melting point
layers that slide easily due to weak forces between layers
Delocalized electrons between
layers allow for for graphite to Conduct electricity
has
Coordinate number is s
-
Diamond and Silicon dioxide
Tightly Packed Rigid Arrangment
-
,
thermal Conduct
,
High melting Point due to Strong Covalent bonds
-
Coordinate number is 4
-
Sigma bonds
Orbitals overlap to form covalent bonds
levels
close in
Ip
energy
to (p orbital
Is and
Is
are
Given the
,
amount
right
an
,
electron
can
move
Bonding Requires Singly filled orbitals
-
Methods to form bond
1
,
2,
Overlap
the Ip
Promote
an
orbital with the
electron from the
Carbon atom
>
Is' ,
Px,
Is orbital
2s
Py
Is", 2 Px 2 Py
orbital into the empty
Ip orbital forming
Pr
,
.
1 electron
overlap with Sorbitals
Px and Py
to
can
overlap with
hybrid orbital
sorbital and form
4 bonds (sp'x4)
,
↓
Each
a
moves
to Pa orbital
(Requires energy (
form 2-bonds
Pibonds
A
-
-
hybrid where the
The
third un-hibridized orbital sits
H
C
H/
it
sorbital is
bonds
Pic -H
sigma
IH
pi
occur
in
double bonds
hibridized with two Porbitals
90'
to
sp2 orbital
to form
.
forming
it
bonds
sp hybrid
from
States of matter
Kinetic Molecular Model-Solids
Particles
are
packed Close together
due to
IMf
only Vibrate and Rotate about
High density Fixed Shapes Negligible Compressability
Particles
Can
,
fixed
position
,
Kinetic Molecular Model
Particles
a
-
Liquids
spaced apart than in solids
Particles
held together by Imf but not in orderly Arrangment
Particles Can
freely
are
more
are
more
IMF
Kinetic Force (same magnitude
=
Moderate to high density negligible Compressability
,
can take
,
shape of Container but not always fill
Kinetic Molecular Model-Gases
Particles
far
are
apart and have unrestricted movement
Particles move around
IMF
Low density
,
Ideal
1. The
freely
Kinetic Forces
<
High Compressability always fill Container
,
Law
gas
Consists of particles with
gas
negligible intermolecular forces of attraction
Particles have
2 Gas
.
. Gas Particles
3
Constant Random Motion
in
↳ Collisions between molecules
Real
Ideal at
.
gases
-
-
negligible volumeCompared to the whole gas Volume
perfectly elastic
are
are
Low Pressure
High temperature
ow
Pressure
Gas molecules
the
gas
The force
is
widely spaced out therefore have
are
,
very largeCompared
of attraction between
gas
to
the gas
molecules
negligible
size
since
the Volume
by
occupied
molecule itself
are
8
High Temperature
particles have Sufficent kinetic energy to overcome it
deviate from Ideal
Real
because the particles have Significant size and IMF
gases
gas
Negligible IMF
since
gas
.
.
Real Gas
High Pressure
Was molecules
Negligible
are
packed Close together due
to decrease in Volume has molecules
,
cannot be
temperature
ow
Force of Attraction between molecules
General Gas
significant at low temperatures
are
Equation
..
VnRI
~
Temperature
=
ms
Pascal
Mr
n
=
=
Ideal Gas Constant
moles
AR
M
At Absolute
is
the
temperature at which
a
gas
would have
no
volume
iquids
Vapour Pressure of
a
liquid- the pressure
a
exerted
by those
molecules that
from the
escape
liquid to form
separate Vapour phase above the liquid
Saturated Vapour Pressure The maximum Vapour pressure that is
-
exerted
by
a
vapour when it is in
equilibrium with its liquid
the magnitude
does not depend
A
of
on
saturated
vapour pressure depends
the amount of
on
the identity of the
Liquid and temperature
.
liquid present
liquid boils when the saturated vapour pressure equals to external pressure
.
Solids
Giant Ionic Lattice
-Strong ionic bonds
Regulary arranged in lattice
High melting point Very brittle do not conduct when solid
-
a
·
,
,
Giant
many
macro
atoms Joined
,
soluble in polar
Structure
together in
a
regular array by
Very high melting point don't conduct electricity
,
Simple Molecular Lattice
Many atoms held together
via
,
a
large number ofCovalent bonds
Hard
Weak Van der Waahl's forces
It
Chemical energetic ( burn in hell)
-
Law-EnergyCan neither be created
irst
When bonds
broken
or
destroyed but
Absorbed :
can
be
changed
IHcq
H-Hcgs
When bonds
formed
is released
IHLlcg
2Higs 2Ckg)
energy
There is net
change in every chenical Rxns
are
energy
is
are
H
-
:
<
+
Enthalpy change of Rxn(k) mol)
=
Ve
sign
the
↓H
<
means
exothermic Rxn
endothermic Rxn
sign means
Enthalpy of products
=
-
Enthalpy of reactants
Activation
Energy
Energy Released
-
Ex : Activation
energy
,
the
energy required
to Kickstart
a
Rxn
Standard Conditions
Pressure : 1 81 Xo Pa
.
Temperature 298 Kelvin
WHO Standard
enthalpy change
:
=
Standard
Enthalpy Change ofFormation
When I mole of Compound is formed from its Constituent elements at Stp
a
.
↳H
The Standard
WHY
<
WHP
>
enthalpy of formation of elements in its physical
energetically
8 is
0 is
more
state
is 8
oxygen
under
stable
energetically less Stable
Enthalpy Change of Combustion
I mole of
element
Compound is Completely burnt in
Standard
or
an
WHO
:
Always
Standard
-
Enthalpy Change of Neutralization
neutralisation between
Conditions (Reaction in an Solution
WHOn
+
Stp
Ve
1 mole of water is formed in
Hap
excess
Ofings H2OCK
an
acid and a base
under Standard
Enthalpy change of Atomisation
Standard
of free
I mole
atoms is formed from its element under Standard Conditions
gaseous
Enthalpy Change of Hydration
standard
Enthalpy change when
under
aquess Ions
mole
one
of the gaseous isns
is
dissolved in
in
water
a
large quantity of water to form
Stp
-Hiya
Enthalpy change of solution
Standard
Enthalpy change when
of
mole
one
substance dissolves
a
to form
Compounds
aqueous
or
Ions
under
Stp
THO
change of Rxn
Standard Enthalpy
enthalpy change of
The Standard
shown in the
a
reaction
is
the
enthalpy change when the amounts of reactants
equation react to give products af Stp
WHE
Cabrimeter
A tool
q
=
calculate
to
energy
of
fuel
a
mcAt
↓
418(g"K" (Specific heat Capacity (
AH
=
Hess Law
Enthalpy change of
The Total
Reactants
independent of the Route
"He
Elements in Standard
CHISH
E8 2
+
"I
AHfCHy8H -234AHf8,
:
A
-
AHf (82
=
↓
=
Hf H20
Cs + 282 + 2H2
234
-
Cycle
966
:
=
-
> 32kSmol
Combustion
Reactants
AHr
Combustion
Products
>
L
State
(82 + 2 H28
~
=
Hess
is
Products
>
AHE
=
Reaction
Cycle : Formation
Hess
AHc
a
AHc
Products
-
-
394
286 X2 =
-
572
taken
Electrochemistry
Chemical equilibrium
Dynamic Equilibrium
A reversible
reaction
Reactants and products
2) of
Le chatelier's
When
dynamic
Haber Process
Necgs
principle
equilibrium
produce
to
2
,
Reactant
increases
position of equilibria favours fod Reaction
position of equilibrium favours fod reaction
increased
is
number of
decrease
then
product and achieve equilibrium
more
When pressure
H<8
of Reactant
Changes in Pressure
.
stay constant
to
mols
Change in temperature
.
3
same
disrupted it will shift to counter the change
is
INHzcgs
<
1. Concentration
When [7 of
being the
4 changes
+
BHzcgs
+
fod and bud reactions
rate of
with
endothermic
temperature is increased the position of equilibrium favours
reaction to absorb heat from
Surrounding Reverse Reaction in Haber process
When
an
.
4 Adding Catalyst
.
change to equilibrian
No
Determining kp
Determining Kc
2582
Initial
2
Change
-
8
.
4
>
-
02
+
-
·
0 2
+ 0
.
4
5p
4
-p 2a
.
Equilibrium
1 68
1 80
0
[]
. 20
3
3 6a
0 88
.
[0 8032
.
.
.
kc
23 203 23 68
=
=
.
1 7
.
=
4 xs"mol"de"
:
.
.
(noldm3)
(moldrie)
.
Yes
250s
2
Molde")
denisnam
You
+
a
2a
a
:
=
+ a
+
=
Ep
=
y
I
+
Zag
i
f
P
P
P
LESCE)
P
Inorganic chemistry
Intro to organic chem
Organic Chem the Study of Carbon Compounds
Honologus Series Family of Compoundsw/ same general formula
,
:
Functional Group : Attached group that defines
,
longest
Count the
2,
Identify functional
3
Number
.
Number the
6 Put it
group
and
decide
the
to decide
prefix
Suffix
functional group (if Required
additional "things" attached to the chain
,
.
Consecutive Carbon Chain
the
4 Look for
5
compounds property.
Naming Organic Compounds
Rules for
I
a
"thing"
together
.
Chlore
1I
H
HH
H
H (H
↑
4H
H-4- 4i4 4iC5
H
It
Func Group
Carbon
2-Chlorohexane
Type of molecule
Pen of func
Grp
CH3H DH
H-C4 e
Exgrp
if
# of
2, 2 - di
Chloro-1-flasrepentane
Position of
functional
Always keepFunctional Group
Name of
group
Compound
on
lowest
I
I
H
H
H
I
Alcohol
C
H-C-C-2-C-sH
I
H on it H
2
Pentan-2-ol
*
-
H
Alkene
c
Hi
?
eth-1-ene
=
H
ethene
In between
H
H
-
C
H
Ha
I
I
&
-
C
-
C
-
! #
L
H
8
"I
"Itit i
d it H
4
--
2
HH
C
C-C
at the
H -2 -C-C-H
H C
end
2 H
It
H
Aldehyde
Propanal
C- C
4p
-
-
3
-
2
Hi
H
-
"
,
Ketone
Ketone
Propanone
Pentan-2-one
-H
H
S
A
L
H
Of
4 4 4-trichbrobutanoic Acid
,
,
Homolytic fission
The
breaking of
between
2 Atoms ,
a
covalent bond such that bonded electrons distribute equally
forming free Radicals
Heterolytic fission
The
breaking of
Positive and
negative
a
covalent bond such that both elections
same
-
-
Pentane
atom
molecular formula but different structural formula
different
is
HH
H-C-C-C-C-C-H
#
same
Chain Isomerism
H
H
H HH
to the
ions
Structural Isomers
have the
They
Carbon skeleton
go
H
=
y H
-
↑ Y
H-C-C-L
-
,
Haki
H
2-methylbutane
,
forming
Structural Isomerism Positional isomerism
-
↑ #H
i l Ho H
#
.
H( C
-
2
-
↓
-
C
-
H
C- H
C
-
C
-
C
-
Pentan-1-ol
H
Group Isomerism
C
-
-
=
C
-
H
-
H
Pent-1-ene
H'
Space
H
structural formula but different
C C bonds
and atoms attached are planner
The atoms
Can't rotate around (C bond
=
This
isomerism
CH2CH2
when
exists
two
and is rigid
different
groups
on
a
carbon
Hiltic-CH
C
H
H
have
you
Arrangment of atoms
H
-Ce
= C
/
+
Cis/Trans isomer
-
Stereoisomers have the same
-
Cyclopentane
-
Stereo Isomerism
in
group
i it is
H
C C C
↓
-
2- C-H
-
formula but different functional
Molecular
H
~_
Pentan-2-81
-
-
Carbon chain
f
Structural Isomerism Functional
H
on
H
oH
↓
H
Same
position of functional group
molecular formula but different
Same
-
=
C
H
Trans-pent-2-ene
Cis-pent-2-ene
Optical Isomers
Optical isomers have the same structural formula but different Arrangment of atoms
-
other and have
Chiral Carbon atoms
images of each
Carbon atom
A chiral molecule has 4 different groups attached to
Optical isomers
-
are
mirror
a
a
These molecules
-
can
Enantioners
H
-
H
j
2
H
arranged in two ways
mirror
images
Called enantioners
of each other
and
H
H
-
are
be
=
-
M
c
B
-of
BrI chiral centre
I
Chinal
L
CHy
non-superimposable
H
↑
/
are
-
**
CooH
C
"
HOOC
Br
H
Hydrocarbons: alkanes
Saturated
Alkanes
are
Hydrocarbons
H
H
-
C
HH
H
H
-
H
&
H
-H
,
↓ f
Methane
H
-
-
-
-
H
7
H l i
Propane
ethane
general formula of Intentz
with the
HHcti
Hy -
cyclopea
-
Fractional Distillation
Alkanes
found in Crude oil
are
The Column has
:
14
S-12 C
As
the
11-15 4
vapour
as
a
mixture
a
temperature gradient it
wises ,
,
the mixture condenses
15-194
20
-
40c
4th
Cracking
Breaking heavier fractions into lighter fractions
Cracking
Thermal
High temp and Pressure (1000C and Toatrl
-
-
Product of cracking is mainly Alkenes
polymers
used to make
Alkenes
Catalytic Cracking
High temp Slight pressure
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Contain Benzene
Products
Ring
,
are
Complete Combustion of Alkanes
High enthalpy Change Good source of energy
,
-
Requires Excess
Oz
Catalytic Converters
-
Harmful chemicals from
Prevent
being released into the atmosphere
-Made from Rhodium platinum , palladium alloy
,
2(8
+
2N0
-
>
Photochemical
A mixture
ICO2
+
N2
Smog
of unburnt
Hydrocarbons
is
and
oxides
of
Nitrogen
Cooler at the
top
.
Halogenoalkane synthesis
free-Radical Substitution
CH4
+
(2
>
-
CH3Cl + HL)
Initiation
X2
-
2X
>
.
*
Halogen
Radical
-free
!
*
-
X
=
single unpaired electron
Homolytic fission
Propagation
CHy Cl
+
·
-
.
CHz + (12
HCI +· CHz
>
CH32)
=
+
Cl
:
Termination
C1
·
+ Cl
:
- Cl2
.
CHz + Cl
.
-
CHzC)
>
Nucleophilic Substitution
Nucleophile
:
.
Electron- pair donor
Main
Nucleophiles
OH;
: (N
H
H
, iNHs
y
:
OH
H-C-c-Br
I
H-44
>
Hi
H
H
(
H
H
-
/iNts
H
_
H-C-L-Br
it i
>
-
H
H
H-C -j-Nt-H
↓
I H
CHsCHeCH2Brt CH3CH2CH2NHz
:
H
H
:NHe
H
H-C-1-i-Br
i
Hi
W
HH
t
H
+
↓
H-4-4-c-Nte
NH
HH H
H
HG-G-c-N
Hydrocarbons: Alkenes
Alkenes
H
Hydro Carbons
unsaturated
are
HH
H
=
1
C= C
-
it
it i
j=
H
But-1, 3-diene
Electrophilic
Addition
Reagents
are
H
1
/
Cyclopentene
+H
Electrophiles due to double bonds
Attacked by
are
h
H
ethene
Alkenes
-
H
H
Polar molecules
Positive
or
Charge ions
H
1
-
c
L
=
He ↓
H
+
Alkene test w/Bromine
Adding Bromine
Brz is
Electrophile
the
Hy
H
Water to
-
-
M
that results in
B-B
Br
-
n
dibromo alkane
a
H
H
.
>
-
Change from Brown-Orange
Causes
H
H
c
=
Alkene
-C
H'y
iBr
<
-H
Br
-H
- - -
H/
L-C
Br
H
Carbocation intermediate
Hydration of Alkene
Steam
Acid Catalyst
+
Condition : Steam +ethene + Phosphoric Acid
Catalyst
HH
H
HyP84
c
+
=
H
-
H-C-C-OH
H
Hi
Hydrogenation
Addition of hydrogen
H
-
= C
H
,
H
#*
-H
to Alkenes
H
H
->
-H
&
c
#
-
c -
IH
:H-c <
I
=
H
Addition of Hydrogen Halides
Alkene reacts with
He
C
H
=
L
-H
+
Hydrogen Halide
8
H-Br
THI
T
-
>
H
to form
c-ct4
: Br
Habgeroalkane
>
-
C-c
H
to
Colourless
Addition with Unsymetrical Alkenes
Forms
products
2
H
R
H
Ric H
RicaR
-
,
t
<M
Ra
,
t
Secondary
Primary
Tertiary
:B
↑
7
H -C-L = C
↓
-
H
i
it
!
↓
H
H
↓
I
HHP
<
H-C-C-C-H
H
↑ +I
it.
-H
↓ H H
H BrH
>
H-L-C-C-H
H-c-L-C -H
-
H + H
Ih i
Primary Carbocation Minor Product t
,
Secondary Carbonlation Malor Product
,
Oxidation of Alkene
Dilute Acidified
Cold
,
He
-H
,
H
A
+
[8]
-
>
H0
-
20H
I
C-C- oH
H H
H
with
group
Conditions
HH
44
+
C
=
Manganate isns
groups
form called diss
,
Hot Concentrated Acidified
Manganate ions
This formula represents all possible Alkenes
,
R2
R,
,
1
C
L
=
I
Ry
R3
H
He
H
C= C
if All
R
if one
2583
+
-H
Alky) groups
are
groups
R-group is Hydrogen
Aldehydes
can
1
if the
=
0
+ 28]
Alkene
then
=
0
+
0
has
-
a
0
:T
=
-
By
then ketones
Aldehydes
be oxidized further into
H
(
"
-
+ 20)
y
Carbon wltwo
-
are
are
formed
formed
Carboxylic Acid
(02 + H2)
hydrogens
then the
Adehyde
can
be exidized to form CO2 +H
Halogen compounds
Types of Habgen Compounds
secondary
Primary
R
H
Alky group
=
<- x
-
H
=(
R2- C
R2
X
-
H
C x
-
is
5
c,
Polar bonds
by nucleophiles
attacked
are
st
>
·
,
I
-
Nucleophile
Bond Polarity
H
R
↑
functional Group
=
Tertiary
Ri
Hy c
-
jb
-
Or
or
CN-
:
:GH
NHz
Hydroxide Reaction (Nucleophilic Substitution)
Condition
:
NasH ,
warm
! OH
H
H
under reflux
H
H
H-C-C -- Br
H
to
primary and secondary
H
H-C-D-J- OH
i i
>
-
i lik
it
specific
,
-
Hydroxide Reaction (Eliminations
Conditions Ethanolic Sodium Hydroxide
:
,
+:
Br
Carried under reflux
,
specific to secondary and tertiary
Halogeno Alkanes
OH
·
H
H
I
-Br
>
-
i
H
H
H
H-C-C
↓
H-C-C'
H
H
H
H
=
C
i
,
to tiBr
Alkenes formed !
Reaction Mechanism (SvI)
Secondary and tertiary Habgenoalkanes
occurs in
-
Halogen break off and forms Carbocation intermediate
CHE
'St
Cats L
H
-
-
X
↳
Two isomers
-
-
CeHs
Can form
-
L
Y
CH2
St
-H
I
+: x
or
~
Let's
-
CH
c
↑
-
Y:
H
↑
Reaction Mechanism (SN2)
Primary and Secondary Halogenoalkanes
1 isomer formed
-
2 Reactants
-
H
-"I'l C
I
H
-
>
...
I
1
L
L
-
>
H
H-C-C-H
:X-
+
↑ i
:
x H
Y
5X H
:Y
# H
H,
H
H
H
Split second intermediate
↳
Reaction
Step
ReactionWith CNFormation of Nitriles
Conditions :
-
Ethanolic Potassium
Warm
Substitution
Nucleophilic
H H
H
'stl
s
- H
+
Reaction with
,
H
H--G-H
H- C-C -H
: CN
Cyanide Carried out under reflux
Ammonia
Nucleophilic Substitution
Conditions Heat with ethanolic ammonia
must have
:
HHH
No
H
H-C-C-H
5's
NHz
<
H
X
,
H-NC-1-H
↑
it # Hix
H
H
Ammonium
excess
H
I
:
N-C-C -H
Ih i
-
H
I
H
N
·
H
-
-
-
:
x
+
N -H
H
H
free-Radical Substitution
CH4
+
(12
-
>
CH3Cl + HL)
Initiation
X2
-
>
2X
.
-free
Y
Halogen
Radical
single unpaired electron
Propagation
CHy Cl
+
·
-
.
CHz + (12
HCI +· CHz
>
=
CH32)
Termination
C1
·
:
+ Cl
.
CHz + Cl
- Cl2
.
-
>
!
CHzC)
Two Radicals React
+
Cl
:
*
-
X
=
Homolytic fission
via
UV
light
Hydroxy compounds
Introduction to Alcohols
R-Alkyl Group
Ri
R,
R2- I-OH
H-C-OH
H
I
R-2-oH
,
H
Primary Akohol
I
Ry
Tertiary Alcohol
Secondary Alcohol
Making Chloro Alkane
Reagents PC15
:
HCI
or
PC/5 Reagent :
ROH + PCIs-
H21 Reagent :
ROH
R21 + HL + POLI
>
HL
+
-
RL
>
+
H28
React faster with HLI
Tertiary Alcohols
Making Bromo Alkanes (Substitution Reaction (
Reagent
:
NaBr
or
Bromine ion
other
H2SO4 is used to create HBr from
H
Source
Halide
a
ion
H HH
HHH
H-(-2-2 - c H
↓ + li fi
+
H
H-2-C-C-2 - H
Hit ! H
>
H -Br
-
Source
He
+
Making Todo Alkane
Reagent
PIs in Reflux
3 ROH
Pls
+
=>
BRI + HyPOz
Dehydration of Alcohols
made
Alkenes
dehydration
via
are
Reagent
:
Acid Catalyst (H2SO4 /HzP8y)
,
CzHg8H-C2Hy
non-primary
+
Heat over Hot Al oxide
Hat
Alcohols
can
form
positional Isomers
Elimination Reaction
Dehydration of non-primary Alcohols
can
lead to
3
different Alkenes
HHHH
H
H
I
I
H-C
i
H
c
H
+ 2
Hiso
I
C
in it ↓
-
H
Eso,
( 1 C C H
=
-
H
-
-
CH3
↓, Hi
H
H-L
H
-
"
- jcH
&
=
p
H
Lis
H
+
y j
CH
=
CH
H
trans
Reactions of Alcohol with Sodium
Reagent Sodium
Sodium dissolves
alcohol
in
Colourless solution leaves
to form a
,
a
white solid powder He
,
gas
is
produced
White powder isSodium Alkoxide
2 CzHsOH + INa
this reaction
-
ILzHgOH Nat + Hz
>
test for Alcohols
can
Alcohol Combustion
Alcohols burn
Alcohol
CcHgOH
Alcohols
readily
oxidised when burnt
is
+
382
-
>
+ 3H 8
2C82
2
be oxidized
can
using
Oxidation of
Alcohols
Alcohols oxidize
to
Reagent
Cr28
,
form
a
mild
Aldehydes Ketones Carboxylic Acid
,
,
Acidified Potassium dichromate (KalreO (
:
and it reduces
Orange
is
Primary Alcohols
can
be
to form Cr3"a
oxidized to
↓
H-
oxidizing Agent like pottasium dichromate
Y*
HH
'H
it #
Aldehydes
Distillation is performed to prevent Aldehydes from oxidizing
-H
#
Carboxylic
ion
Aldehydes then Carboxylic Acid
H-L-c-
>
green
Acids
Secondary Alcohols oxidize to form ketones
↓
Hp H
ketones have
H-C-C-C-H
i
↓
Tertiary Alcohols
C: O
on
a
inner
Carbon atom
only be oxidized by burning them
can
Formation of esters (Esterification ]
Reagent
H2S84 Catalyst
:
Reaction between Alcohols
Carboxylic Acid forms esters
=
R-c
Ht
+
-H
R
-o
R-
-
H
+
-R
H28
Iodoform Reaction
methyl group attached reacts with Iodine
ethanol and
Secondary Alcohols
Only possible in
Reagent Iodine Alkali
hydroxyl Group with
:
a
+
forms Yellow ppt Called tri-iodomethane
Carbonyl compounds
Testing of Aldehydes and ketones
Reagent
Prep
Tollen's
:
Reagent
for Tollen's
Silver nitrate
Reagent
Solution
+
NaOH
Dilute Ammonia
+
Aldehyde/ketones to tollen's reagent and place in hot water bath
Aldehydes Cause tollens to become reduced to silver
Add
Ketones have
no
Reaction with tollen's
Fehling Test
Reagent fehling's solution
fehling Oxidizes Aldehydes
Aldehydes turn fehling solution from blue
:
to brick red
Ketones remain blue
Testing for Carbonyl Compounds
Reagent
:
Brady's Reagent/2-4 DNPH
Brady's is dissolved in Concentrated Hasoy and methanol and then added to substance
.
Carbonyl group Causes bright orange ppt Brady's reacts with
,
Co in
Ketones
and
Aldehydes
The Iodoform Reaction
A
Carbony) Group that have methyl group react
RLOCH3 + 3Ic + 48H-
>
R18O + CHIy + 3l
/
+
3H28
I
Produced from
Yellow PPE
Alkali
Methyl Carbonyl only exists
H-P-cHz
with Iodine
Ethanal and
in
ketones with
methyl Group
-
-2tt
Ketone
R
,
Ethanal
Reduction of Aldehydes & Ketones
Reagent NaBHy (Sodium Borshydride) Reducing Agent
:
H
H
+
C
c
-
↓
H
-
c
1227H
↑
-
C
↓
↑
-
C
-
C
i
H
2- 2
-
c
-
GH
↓ I H
↓ pHH
2(H)
-
H HH
-
>
H-C-C-2-H
↓
fi
ketones
get reduced to Secondary Alcohols
KLN and
Reagent
Carbonyl Groups
KCN
:
Mechanism
Acidic Solution
in
H
I
I
st 85
H- c -C-C n
<
H
:
form
Hydroxynitrile
HH
HH
1
-
i i
HCN
or
Nucleophilic Addition to
is
H
H
,
H
-
L-L-L-0 :
IN
↓
CN-
H
·
↓
Fit
OH
N
Hydrogen Provided due
to Arich
Aldehyde Equation RCH8 KLN
:
Equation : RLOR
Ketone
+
+
KCN + H
+
-
+
<
RCHLOHSCN
+
H
>
RCRCOH)CN + It
+
It
Racemates
Products
Racemic
occur
when
an
unsymetrical Carbong) Group is attacked
CN :
~
Cetts
-
Of
S
-1
Planar
&
H/
k
....
Cetts
CN
Racemic
OH
LN
rect.
:
:
Equal amount of both enautioners
i
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic Acids have the COOH functional Group Hydroxy "Carbonyl Groups
,
H
=
B
L
<
-+
Ethanoic Acid
-
hidh i
-
1
-
0
-
KeCruO
:
I
-
:
,
HLI
,
H
H-C-CEN
-
OH
COL
H
I
2 thO + 2Hc1",
+
Benzoic Acid
Hit t
Cas
H-4 G E
Reagent for Nitriles to
,
4
HH
#(0),
h
↓
KMn8
,
I
=
NHyll
+C-CyH
H
Hi
Carboxylic Acid Reactions
-
Weak Acids
-
Reacts with Carbonate
to form
CO2
-Partially Dissociate to form Carboxylate ions
-
Reacts with Metals
R-
-
R
-
OH
=
-
8
C
-
-+
H
,
+
CHzC80H
NaOH-CHyLOONa
+
NuzCAs-
2CHzLO8H + Mg
-
>
>
Dissociation
H2O + CO2
2 CH3COoNa +
ICHzL08H
+
,
Carbonate
H28 Neutralization
,
(CHz 200)= Mg2T +He
Esterification
Reagent : Alcohol and Haboy Catalyst and Carboxlyic Acid
R-170
+
R
i
=
R-c
-o-R
+
C
8
H
OH'
4-chloro-3-hydroxybutansicAid
,
Reagent for Alcohols
+
-
L-C-C-C
Making Carboxylic Acid
H -(1
=
=A
~
H-C-C
H
H
is
+
1
"
-
H
Carboxylic Acid Reduction
Reagent LiAlHy in dry other solvent
:
HzL-2104 4
+
#
CH3
HyL-CH2
Hydrolysis
Ester
Reagent Acid under Reflux
Acid Hydrolysis
:
H
8
H- C C
+ H
-
&
i
O
-
C
-
H
C
-
H
HI
Hyf
+
i
H
-A
+C C
+
-
H
H
O-H
-
0
-
H
-H
I, I
Reagent NagH under reflux
:
Ec
=
He
B
#
HH
-
C
-
-
H
+
of
H
f Ho
F
H-c
H
Hi
+
H
Metal adds on
Aliphatic Amines
Reagent HabgenoAlkane with
:
M
it
I
I
HC
Ammonia
excess
,
-
H
it
C
A
-
Cl
H
1
g-
HH
H ↓
H I
CI-
HN
:
Hab Alkane and CN
Reagent
:
Igt
I
H
-
C
ethanolic KIN under reflux
H
H
-
i
2
-
H
-
it in
Est
: CN-
H
+
:
t
H-C-C-NH
>
k4
T
-
,
H
H-C-C -N
-
H
!if
>
-
↑H
H-C-C-NHz
hi
:
Ntz
NHYLI-
Analytical techniques
Infra-Red Spectroscopy
-
Vibrational
Increase
energy
of
Lovalent bond in Sample
frequency of IR Absorbed depends
of the bond
1, the Atom citter side
2,
Position
in
Spectrometer
Mass
-
of bond
on
the
molecule
Isotope
-
Elements have different Isotopes which get separated
-
Element islonised and results in Charged Particle
a
Relative Atomic
Mass
Mass
Spectrometer
=
-
=
H
x
It
(AxEA)(B
+
MLB
Molecule
the number of Carbon atoms
n
in
Can be
found by
the Mass
Spec