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Chemistry Study Notes: Atomic Structure, Bonding, Stoichiometry
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Tawheed Chapter 1 Atomic structure Electro Electronegativity Increasing M negativity Atomic Radius V Increasi Trends group v a rg Seen IE Each successive nuclear charge element gains The Atomic radius decreases Radius S an increases , election shell down the group moving Across Any period resulting in charge effect does not change significantly Shielding Nuclear the p# increases Atsmic Atomic Atomic Radius in the Atomic Radius , Decreasing + across successive increasing shielding from elements in a period charge is determined by the balance of protons and elections The #st elections . in = Neutral atom # of protons Electron Configuration Na Is Is Ip"3s' Valence election : Period # Orbitals are a region of space where Aufbau Principle The Aufban principle states that electrons Level 1 1S . n= 2 S n 3 & n = W > = 4 n= n= S P · · - · - are an election is likely to be found. filled into atomic sobitals starting from the lowest energy Pauli Exclusion principle The Exclusion principle states The rule states that that funds rule of Maximum Before the double will have identical same orbital of any total spin , of givensbital must a quantum numbers Anti-parallel be Multiplicity occupation for the maximization elections two only two elections may occupy the paired elections occupying The two he orbital every , all elections in a orbital in a must be subshell orbital must single occupied be singly occupied parrallel/same spin Heisenberg's Uncertainty ~ double occupancy 14 Is 14 f 1 2p4 25 Parrallel Spin Electron Configuration Exception These two elements Co : 1s2252 are only exceptions to thei configuration the Copper and chromium are one . e-from reaching more a stable state Ip"3323pP4s'3d election promotion occurs to help achieve a more stable state Cu : Is2s"Ip"353p'4s'Ed Electron Configuration of Ions Na : Is "2s22p63s' Nat : My Is "2s Is "Is"Ep 2 + My Isselectric ↑ Effective Nuclear [p"3523p p"-Is"2s22p3s23 P : Is " Is 3 Effective Nuclear atom Al : /s 25 2 p 5 : ( as a result of ↓election Is Cs"Ip'3s23p4 (i E · a as result of e BL Chlorine-3) Anion 1s2s"2p'33pt 34s 16 +2 ↓ - 4 fe shielding : Is 25 32 /s 25 [p3s3pt Charge I p63323p Al3 +: /s "Is2 Ip Series Charge 6 ~ Is 2s22p63 , 1s22s 2 p'3 323p4 : Ip63s23pS /s22s22p"35236 of Orbital Shape Sorbitats spherical in shape found in each principle energyLevel - - ↑radius - higher energy levels in Porbital shaped dumbell - three in each Ionization Energy the amount only for of Cation from level energy to needed energy Cul 2 remove an election first IE the energy needed to gaseous atom X Tcgs form to + X Xg > remove (g) X of mole one mole of election one gaseous from one monspositive mole of isns + e cy + e Second IE the of amount of energY needed monopositive gaseous ion Increase &E attributed to to form to one role of election from mole of dipositive gaseous ion remove TENC and one lower Na)( a Ish inner energy Is shell closes ~ s to the nucleus distance from nucleus one note Chapter 2: Stoichiometry unified Atomic Mass 12th of a neutral unbound carbon-12 , I unified atomic unit mass In = Relative Atomic Mass Ar-Weighted Average of atoms in a unified Atomic = 1 66 . isstope ground state . x10kg given sample of Mass at an element unit Relative Isotopic Mass The mass of an isotope relative to Tu Relative Molecular Mass The ratio of the weighted average mass of a molecule of molecular The Mol I mol of substance contain the same number of trogadro Constant 1 mo) x 6 82x12 particles . Empirical formula 12 n: 8y C . 2 , IgH . , 85 . IgBr / 866 2 08 1 865 I 2 1 . . Find nols . + by lowest mol CH2Br Combustion Data Formula CxHy + X +* O2 (xHy + (x 24)82 + zocm locm ↓ 1 + 4 y - < XC82t H28 X(82 + loam 2 4 = = CH4 = 2 1 4 + 282 = (82 + 2 H20 H2d particles as in 12g of "( compound to tu Chemical bonding Ionic Bonding The electrostatic force of attraction between Cations and Anions in an Covalent bonding When the Valence electrons and Ionic Crystal Lattice of two atoms are shared Electrostatic attraction between electrons shared . . the atomic Nuclei involved der Waals' forces an physical properties ofCompounds Weak forces between molecules that determine , Umbrella term for All forces London dispersion Force (Instantaneous Induced dipole) Exist between all molecules and atsms : - The electron charge Cloud in non-polar molecules Temporary Dipoles Arise which can are Increases With : Number of electrons Number of Contact electrons , bonding Exist in Polar molecules : long neighboring molecule resulting in Attraction . as they have Permanent dipoles In Molecules with equal . Polarity Hydrogen bonding Stronger form of permanent dipole Requires Hydrogen bonding : Ions form when to area stronger than idid Pd-Pd is increases with: on one points , Permanent diple always moving and when they stay dipole moments induce . , atsms gain lose or one or more with CN, O, f) electrons Cations form When atsms lose electrons Anions form when atoms gain electrons the how Charge depends electrons are lost or gained. The strong force of Attraction between positive ions and negative ions in on many an Ionic Crystal lattice result in Ionic Bonds. crystals have Ioniz charge a regular repeating pattern resulting in Strong Ionic bonds and overall neutral . Structure : Giant Ionic Lattice , Crystalline Solids They have high melting and boiling points Single Covalent Bonding When two non-metal atoms Combine Single Covalent bond a , or , bond they share pair . one or more pairs of electron . A shared pair is called Some atoms Can bond bond together by sharing two pairs of electrons resulting in a double covalent . T oh loniin Examples Ammonia NHcf * N** H , · 2 - C82- ::: C :.. - : 0.: / ·.:: ↑ SO2 : & f !: : No2 : " f .. N :: j : Coordinate . Bonding dative Covalent bond Aka bond inWhich both ACovalent Donor atom possess a lone electrons come pair of electron accomadate the electron lone from the and donor atom acceptor atom must have empty orbitals to pain ·: · 41 : X :: Exception to Octet Rule Some Species Contain Some Contain more (Expanded) or less odd number of electrons (incompletel than eight electrons in their Outer shell Pi and Signa Bond Covalent bonds both - - - The are formed when the orbitals of two nuclei attract pairs of electrons greater Results in the overlap , the stronger Hybridization 6-bonds form from direct overlap or neighboring atoms overlap so that between them the bond the adjacent , Shorter the bond overlap Sigma Bond O-bond headon / direct overlapping orbitals overlap Can be rotated without breaking the bond --bondsc-bonds : greater overlap Pi-Bonch Orbitals Weaker overlap sideways than . 2-bond density Concentrated above and below the nuclei Cannot be rotated without breaking the bond Electron The re-bond can overlap endi on to make -bond . Hybridization Requires orbital modification Energy (vls combine and next closer to the greater orbital USEPR character Theory The number and type of electron pairs around the Central am shape of the molecule Lone-pair-lone pair Repulsion is greater than lone pair-bond pair which is greater than determines the -bond pair. . . Electron pairs in a molecule 180 linear Bonds bond : (1-Be-CI angle 180 degrees : move as far apart as possible to minimise repulsion . bond pain Trigonal planar H : I (120 B Bond Angle : 120 H -H H Tetrahedral Bond 17109 5 . : H Angle 189 : . Bond Angle H-N-H i : 107 : e 5 Trigonal Pyramidal C , , H - o Bent : Bond Angle : 184 S . Trigonal Bi-Pyramidal Bond Angle Square Bond planar : - 9: : : - Xe"" .. H . Bond Angle : 128" H · f H -H H & c - -H molecule Ethane on-planar bond . angle H 100C H Overlap Sp of -H .. ↳ H H Angles in ethene molecule Planar Molecule All bond f H - - H 189 5 IP f -. H Planar Angle : N , A He -- : 189 5 Angles in ( - ⑳ Angle 90 Angle -↓ 7 Non-planar : Bonch ↑ 128 Octahedral : Bond F f 128'898 : Angle : Angles 120 = Electronegativity The of power a particular atom that isCovalently bonded to another atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons toward itself Bond Polarity Unequal sharing of electrons is known as Polarized molecules have dipole moments polarization Compound With Covalent Character Ionic Ionic bonds can have some Covalent Character due The Cation attracts the negative charge of union The Covalent character higher when Small is the Cation - Distortion of > - has anion charge Cloud high Charge Density (high Charge , , : Lation is Small Anion - polarization of Ions Size) High Lovalent character in Ionic band exist when - to is large Cation has Metallic high charge Bonding A metallic Solid Consists of a lattice of Ions with the outer electrons forming a sea of electrons Electrostatic force of attraction between the delcalized electron Cloud and the metal ions bonding Constitute the metallic Strength of Metallic bonding depends on the size Charge of the Cation and Strength ! Charger Strength Size: : Induced dipole-dipole forces forces of Attraction between nonpolar molecules Affected by 1) number of electrons 2) Shape of molecules Branching Reduces Strength in a molecule : Ye : ↑Id-Id : Hydrogen Bonding strongest intermolecular bond Very Strong dipole moment , Hehasthehighestboiling point of all the the three hydrides becaus see Structure Giant Covalent Graphite Lots ofCovalent bonds , Graphite has high melting point layers that slide easily due to weak forces between layers Delocalized electrons between layers allow for for graphite to Conduct electricity has Coordinate number is s - Diamond and Silicon dioxide Tightly Packed Rigid Arrangment - , thermal Conduct , High melting Point due to Strong Covalent bonds - Coordinate number is 4 - Sigma bonds Orbitals overlap to form covalent bonds levels close in Ip energy to (p orbital Is and Is are Given the , amount right an , electron can move Bonding Requires Singly filled orbitals - Methods to form bond 1 , 2, Overlap the Ip Promote an orbital with the electron from the Carbon atom > Is' , Px, Is orbital 2s Py Is", 2 Px 2 Py orbital into the empty Ip orbital forming Pr , . 1 electron overlap with Sorbitals Px and Py to can overlap with hybrid orbital sorbital and form 4 bonds (sp'x4) , ↓ Each a moves to Pa orbital (Requires energy ( form 2-bonds Pibonds A - - hybrid where the The third un-hibridized orbital sits H C H/ it sorbital is bonds Pic -H sigma IH pi occur in double bonds hibridized with two Porbitals 90' to sp2 orbital to form . forming it bonds sp hybrid from States of matter Kinetic Molecular Model-Solids Particles are packed Close together due to IMf only Vibrate and Rotate about High density Fixed Shapes Negligible Compressability Particles Can , fixed position , Kinetic Molecular Model Particles a - Liquids spaced apart than in solids Particles held together by Imf but not in orderly Arrangment Particles Can freely are more are more IMF Kinetic Force (same magnitude = Moderate to high density negligible Compressability , can take , shape of Container but not always fill Kinetic Molecular Model-Gases Particles far are apart and have unrestricted movement Particles move around IMF Low density , Ideal 1. The freely Kinetic Forces < High Compressability always fill Container , Law gas Consists of particles with gas negligible intermolecular forces of attraction Particles have 2 Gas . . Gas Particles 3 Constant Random Motion in ↳ Collisions between molecules Real Ideal at . gases - - negligible volumeCompared to the whole gas Volume perfectly elastic are are Low Pressure High temperature ow Pressure Gas molecules the gas The force is widely spaced out therefore have are , very largeCompared of attraction between gas to the gas molecules negligible size since the Volume by occupied molecule itself are 8 High Temperature particles have Sufficent kinetic energy to overcome it deviate from Ideal Real because the particles have Significant size and IMF gases gas Negligible IMF since gas . . Real Gas High Pressure Was molecules Negligible are packed Close together due to decrease in Volume has molecules , cannot be temperature ow Force of Attraction between molecules General Gas significant at low temperatures are Equation .. VnRI ~ Temperature = ms Pascal Mr n = = Ideal Gas Constant moles AR M At Absolute is the temperature at which a gas would have no volume iquids Vapour Pressure of a liquid- the pressure a exerted by those molecules that from the escape liquid to form separate Vapour phase above the liquid Saturated Vapour Pressure The maximum Vapour pressure that is - exerted by a vapour when it is in equilibrium with its liquid the magnitude does not depend A of on saturated vapour pressure depends the amount of on the identity of the Liquid and temperature . liquid present liquid boils when the saturated vapour pressure equals to external pressure . Solids Giant Ionic Lattice -Strong ionic bonds Regulary arranged in lattice High melting point Very brittle do not conduct when solid - a · , , Giant many macro atoms Joined , soluble in polar Structure together in a regular array by Very high melting point don't conduct electricity , Simple Molecular Lattice Many atoms held together via , a large number ofCovalent bonds Hard Weak Van der Waahl's forces It Chemical energetic ( burn in hell) - Law-EnergyCan neither be created irst When bonds broken or destroyed but Absorbed : can be changed IHcq H-Hcgs When bonds formed is released IHLlcg 2Higs 2Ckg) energy There is net change in every chenical Rxns are energy is are H - : < + Enthalpy change of Rxn(k) mol) = Ve sign the ↓H < means exothermic Rxn endothermic Rxn sign means Enthalpy of products = - Enthalpy of reactants Activation Energy Energy Released - Ex : Activation energy , the energy required to Kickstart a Rxn Standard Conditions Pressure : 1 81 Xo Pa . Temperature 298 Kelvin WHO Standard enthalpy change : = Standard Enthalpy Change ofFormation When I mole of Compound is formed from its Constituent elements at Stp a . ↳H The Standard WHY < WHP > enthalpy of formation of elements in its physical energetically 8 is 0 is more state is 8 oxygen under stable energetically less Stable Enthalpy Change of Combustion I mole of element Compound is Completely burnt in Standard or an WHO : Always Standard - Enthalpy Change of Neutralization neutralisation between Conditions (Reaction in an Solution WHOn + Stp Ve 1 mole of water is formed in Hap excess Ofings H2OCK an acid and a base under Standard Enthalpy change of Atomisation Standard of free I mole atoms is formed from its element under Standard Conditions gaseous Enthalpy Change of Hydration standard Enthalpy change when under aquess Ions mole one of the gaseous isns is dissolved in in water a large quantity of water to form Stp -Hiya Enthalpy change of solution Standard Enthalpy change when of mole one substance dissolves a to form Compounds aqueous or Ions under Stp THO change of Rxn Standard Enthalpy enthalpy change of The Standard shown in the a reaction is the enthalpy change when the amounts of reactants equation react to give products af Stp WHE Cabrimeter A tool q = calculate to energy of fuel a mcAt ↓ 418(g"K" (Specific heat Capacity ( AH = Hess Law Enthalpy change of The Total Reactants independent of the Route "He Elements in Standard CHISH E8 2 + "I AHfCHy8H -234AHf8, : A - AHf (82 = ↓ = Hf H20 Cs + 282 + 2H2 234 - Cycle 966 : = - > 32kSmol Combustion Reactants AHr Combustion Products > L State (82 + 2 H28 ~ = Hess is Products > AHE = Reaction Cycle : Formation Hess AHc a AHc Products - - 394 286 X2 = - 572 taken Electrochemistry Chemical equilibrium Dynamic Equilibrium A reversible reaction Reactants and products 2) of Le chatelier's When dynamic Haber Process Necgs principle equilibrium produce to 2 , Reactant increases position of equilibria favours fod Reaction position of equilibrium favours fod reaction increased is number of decrease then product and achieve equilibrium more When pressure H<8 of Reactant Changes in Pressure . stay constant to mols Change in temperature . 3 same disrupted it will shift to counter the change is INHzcgs < 1. Concentration When [7 of being the 4 changes + BHzcgs + fod and bud reactions rate of with endothermic temperature is increased the position of equilibrium favours reaction to absorb heat from Surrounding Reverse Reaction in Haber process When an . 4 Adding Catalyst . change to equilibrian No Determining kp Determining Kc 2582 Initial 2 Change - 8 . 4 > - 02 + - · 0 2 + 0 . 4 5p 4 -p 2a . Equilibrium 1 68 1 80 0 [] . 20 3 3 6a 0 88 . [0 8032 . . . kc 23 203 23 68 = = . 1 7 . = 4 xs"mol"de" : . . (noldm3) (moldrie) . Yes 250s 2 Molde") denisnam You + a 2a a : = + a + = Ep = y I + Zag i f P P P LESCE) P Inorganic chemistry Intro to organic chem Organic Chem the Study of Carbon Compounds Honologus Series Family of Compoundsw/ same general formula , : Functional Group : Attached group that defines , longest Count the 2, Identify functional 3 Number . Number the 6 Put it group and decide the to decide prefix Suffix functional group (if Required additional "things" attached to the chain , . Consecutive Carbon Chain the 4 Look for 5 compounds property. Naming Organic Compounds Rules for I a "thing" together . Chlore 1I H HH H H (H ↑ 4H H-4- 4i4 4iC5 H It Func Group Carbon 2-Chlorohexane Type of molecule Pen of func Grp CH3H DH H-C4 e Exgrp if # of 2, 2 - di Chloro-1-flasrepentane Position of functional Always keepFunctional Group Name of group Compound on lowest I I H H H I Alcohol C H-C-C-2-C-sH I H on it H 2 Pentan-2-ol * - H Alkene c Hi ? eth-1-ene = H ethene In between H H - C H Ha I I & - C - C - ! # L H 8 "I "Itit i d it H 4 -- 2 HH C C-C at the H -2 -C-C-H H C end 2 H It H Aldehyde Propanal C- C 4p - - 3 - 2 Hi H - " , Ketone Ketone Propanone Pentan-2-one -H H S A L H Of 4 4 4-trichbrobutanoic Acid , , Homolytic fission The breaking of between 2 Atoms , a covalent bond such that bonded electrons distribute equally forming free Radicals Heterolytic fission The breaking of Positive and negative a covalent bond such that both elections same - - Pentane atom molecular formula but different structural formula different is HH H-C-C-C-C-C-H # same Chain Isomerism H H H HH to the ions Structural Isomers have the They Carbon skeleton go H = y H - ↑ Y H-C-C-L - , Haki H 2-methylbutane , forming Structural Isomerism Positional isomerism - ↑ #H i l Ho H # . H( C - 2 - ↓ - C - H C- H C - C - C - Pentan-1-ol H Group Isomerism C - - = C - H - H Pent-1-ene H' Space H structural formula but different C C bonds and atoms attached are planner The atoms Can't rotate around (C bond = This isomerism CH2CH2 when exists two and is rigid different groups on a carbon Hiltic-CH C H H have you Arrangment of atoms H -Ce = C / + Cis/Trans isomer - Stereoisomers have the same - Cyclopentane - Stereo Isomerism in group i it is H C C C ↓ - 2- C-H - formula but different functional Molecular H ~_ Pentan-2-81 - - Carbon chain f Structural Isomerism Functional H on H oH ↓ H Same position of functional group molecular formula but different Same - = C H Trans-pent-2-ene Cis-pent-2-ene Optical Isomers Optical isomers have the same structural formula but different Arrangment of atoms - other and have Chiral Carbon atoms images of each Carbon atom A chiral molecule has 4 different groups attached to Optical isomers - are mirror a a These molecules - can Enantioners H - H j 2 H arranged in two ways mirror images Called enantioners of each other and H H - are be = - M c B -of BrI chiral centre I Chinal L CHy non-superimposable H ↑ / are - ** CooH C " HOOC Br H Hydrocarbons: alkanes Saturated Alkanes are Hydrocarbons H H - C HH H H - H & H -H , ↓ f Methane H - - - - H 7 H l i Propane ethane general formula of Intentz with the HHcti Hy - cyclopea - Fractional Distillation Alkanes found in Crude oil are The Column has : 14 S-12 C As the 11-15 4 vapour as a mixture a temperature gradient it wises , , the mixture condenses 15-194 20 - 40c 4th Cracking Breaking heavier fractions into lighter fractions Cracking Thermal High temp and Pressure (1000C and Toatrl - - Product of cracking is mainly Alkenes polymers used to make Alkenes Catalytic Cracking High temp Slight pressure Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Contain Benzene Products Ring , are Complete Combustion of Alkanes High enthalpy Change Good source of energy , - Requires Excess Oz Catalytic Converters - Harmful chemicals from Prevent being released into the atmosphere -Made from Rhodium platinum , palladium alloy , 2(8 + 2N0 - > Photochemical A mixture ICO2 + N2 Smog of unburnt Hydrocarbons is and oxides of Nitrogen Cooler at the top . Halogenoalkane synthesis free-Radical Substitution CH4 + (2 > - CH3Cl + HL) Initiation X2 - 2X > . * Halogen Radical -free ! * - X = single unpaired electron Homolytic fission Propagation CHy Cl + · - . CHz + (12 HCI +· CHz > CH32) = + Cl : Termination C1 · + Cl : - Cl2 . CHz + Cl . - CHzC) > Nucleophilic Substitution Nucleophile : . Electron- pair donor Main Nucleophiles OH; : (N H H , iNHs y : OH H-C-c-Br I H-44 > Hi H H ( H H - /iNts H _ H-C-L-Br it i > - H H H-C -j-Nt-H ↓ I H CHsCHeCH2Brt CH3CH2CH2NHz : H H :NHe H H-C-1-i-Br i Hi W HH t H + ↓ H-4-4-c-Nte NH HH H H HG-G-c-N Hydrocarbons: Alkenes Alkenes H Hydro Carbons unsaturated are HH H = 1 C= C - it it i j= H But-1, 3-diene Electrophilic Addition Reagents are H 1 / Cyclopentene +H Electrophiles due to double bonds Attacked by are h H ethene Alkenes - H H Polar molecules Positive or Charge ions H 1 - c L = He ↓ H + Alkene test w/Bromine Adding Bromine Brz is Electrophile the Hy H Water to - - M that results in B-B Br - n dibromo alkane a H H . > - Change from Brown-Orange Causes H H c = Alkene -C H'y iBr < -H Br -H - - - H/ L-C Br H Carbocation intermediate Hydration of Alkene Steam Acid Catalyst + Condition : Steam +ethene + Phosphoric Acid Catalyst HH H HyP84 c + = H - H-C-C-OH H Hi Hydrogenation Addition of hydrogen H - = C H , H #* -H to Alkenes H H -> -H & c # - c - IH :H-c < I = H Addition of Hydrogen Halides Alkene reacts with He C H = L -H + Hydrogen Halide 8 H-Br THI T - > H to form c-ct4 : Br Habgeroalkane > - C-c H to Colourless Addition with Unsymetrical Alkenes Forms products 2 H R H Ric H RicaR - , t <M Ra , t Secondary Primary Tertiary :B ↑ 7 H -C-L = C ↓ - H i it ! ↓ H H ↓ I HHP < H-C-C-C-H H ↑ +I it. -H ↓ H H H BrH > H-L-C-C-H H-c-L-C -H - H + H Ih i Primary Carbocation Minor Product t , Secondary Carbonlation Malor Product , Oxidation of Alkene Dilute Acidified Cold , He -H , H A + [8] - > H0 - 20H I C-C- oH H H H with group Conditions HH 44 + C = Manganate isns groups form called diss , Hot Concentrated Acidified Manganate ions This formula represents all possible Alkenes , R2 R, , 1 C L = I Ry R3 H He H C= C if All R if one 2583 + -H Alky) groups are groups R-group is Hydrogen Aldehydes can 1 if the = 0 + 28] Alkene then = 0 + 0 has - a 0 :T = - By then ketones Aldehydes be oxidized further into H ( " - + 20) y Carbon wltwo - are are formed formed Carboxylic Acid (02 + H2) hydrogens then the Adehyde can be exidized to form CO2 +H Halogen compounds Types of Habgen Compounds secondary Primary R H Alky group = <- x - H =( R2- C R2 X - H C x - is 5 c, Polar bonds by nucleophiles attacked are st > · , I - Nucleophile Bond Polarity H R ↑ functional Group = Tertiary Ri Hy c - jb - Or or CN- : :GH NHz Hydroxide Reaction (Nucleophilic Substitution) Condition : NasH , warm ! OH H H under reflux H H H-C-C -- Br H to primary and secondary H H-C-D-J- OH i i > - i lik it specific , - Hydroxide Reaction (Eliminations Conditions Ethanolic Sodium Hydroxide : , +: Br Carried under reflux , specific to secondary and tertiary Halogeno Alkanes OH · H H I -Br > - i H H H H-C-C ↓ H-C-C' H H H H = C i , to tiBr Alkenes formed ! Reaction Mechanism (SvI) Secondary and tertiary Habgenoalkanes occurs in - Halogen break off and forms Carbocation intermediate CHE 'St Cats L H - - X ↳ Two isomers - - CeHs Can form - L Y CH2 St -H I +: x or ~ Let's - CH c ↑ - Y: H ↑ Reaction Mechanism (SN2) Primary and Secondary Halogenoalkanes 1 isomer formed - 2 Reactants - H -"I'l C I H - > ... I 1 L L - > H H-C-C-H :X- + ↑ i : x H Y 5X H :Y # H H, H H H Split second intermediate ↳ Reaction Step ReactionWith CNFormation of Nitriles Conditions : - Ethanolic Potassium Warm Substitution Nucleophilic H H H 'stl s - H + Reaction with , H H--G-H H- C-C -H : CN Cyanide Carried out under reflux Ammonia Nucleophilic Substitution Conditions Heat with ethanolic ammonia must have : HHH No H H-C-C-H 5's NHz < H X , H-NC-1-H ↑ it # Hix H H Ammonium excess H I : N-C-C -H Ih i - H I H N · H - - - : x + N -H H H free-Radical Substitution CH4 + (12 - > CH3Cl + HL) Initiation X2 - > 2X . -free Y Halogen Radical single unpaired electron Propagation CHy Cl + · - . CHz + (12 HCI +· CHz > = CH32) Termination C1 · : + Cl . CHz + Cl - Cl2 . - > ! CHzC) Two Radicals React + Cl : * - X = Homolytic fission via UV light Hydroxy compounds Introduction to Alcohols R-Alkyl Group Ri R, R2- I-OH H-C-OH H I R-2-oH , H Primary Akohol I Ry Tertiary Alcohol Secondary Alcohol Making Chloro Alkane Reagents PC15 : HCI or PC/5 Reagent : ROH + PCIs- H21 Reagent : ROH R21 + HL + POLI > HL + - RL > + H28 React faster with HLI Tertiary Alcohols Making Bromo Alkanes (Substitution Reaction ( Reagent : NaBr or Bromine ion other H2SO4 is used to create HBr from H Source Halide a ion H HH HHH H-(-2-2 - c H ↓ + li fi + H H-2-C-C-2 - H Hit ! H > H -Br - Source He + Making Todo Alkane Reagent PIs in Reflux 3 ROH Pls + => BRI + HyPOz Dehydration of Alcohols made Alkenes dehydration via are Reagent : Acid Catalyst (H2SO4 /HzP8y) , CzHg8H-C2Hy non-primary + Heat over Hot Al oxide Hat Alcohols can form positional Isomers Elimination Reaction Dehydration of non-primary Alcohols can lead to 3 different Alkenes HHHH H H I I H-C i H c H + 2 Hiso I C in it ↓ - H Eso, ( 1 C C H = - H - - CH3 ↓, Hi H H-L H - " - jcH & = p H Lis H + y j CH = CH H trans Reactions of Alcohol with Sodium Reagent Sodium Sodium dissolves alcohol in Colourless solution leaves to form a , a white solid powder He , gas is produced White powder isSodium Alkoxide 2 CzHsOH + INa this reaction - ILzHgOH Nat + Hz > test for Alcohols can Alcohol Combustion Alcohols burn Alcohol CcHgOH Alcohols readily oxidised when burnt is + 382 - > + 3H 8 2C82 2 be oxidized can using Oxidation of Alcohols Alcohols oxidize to Reagent Cr28 , form a mild Aldehydes Ketones Carboxylic Acid , , Acidified Potassium dichromate (KalreO ( : and it reduces Orange is Primary Alcohols can be to form Cr3"a oxidized to ↓ H- oxidizing Agent like pottasium dichromate Y* HH 'H it # Aldehydes Distillation is performed to prevent Aldehydes from oxidizing -H # Carboxylic ion Aldehydes then Carboxylic Acid H-L-c- > green Acids Secondary Alcohols oxidize to form ketones ↓ Hp H ketones have H-C-C-C-H i ↓ Tertiary Alcohols C: O on a inner Carbon atom only be oxidized by burning them can Formation of esters (Esterification ] Reagent H2S84 Catalyst : Reaction between Alcohols Carboxylic Acid forms esters = R-c Ht + -H R -o R- - H + -R H28 Iodoform Reaction methyl group attached reacts with Iodine ethanol and Secondary Alcohols Only possible in Reagent Iodine Alkali hydroxyl Group with : a + forms Yellow ppt Called tri-iodomethane Carbonyl compounds Testing of Aldehydes and ketones Reagent Prep Tollen's : Reagent for Tollen's Silver nitrate Reagent Solution + NaOH Dilute Ammonia + Aldehyde/ketones to tollen's reagent and place in hot water bath Aldehydes Cause tollens to become reduced to silver Add Ketones have no Reaction with tollen's Fehling Test Reagent fehling's solution fehling Oxidizes Aldehydes Aldehydes turn fehling solution from blue : to brick red Ketones remain blue Testing for Carbonyl Compounds Reagent : Brady's Reagent/2-4 DNPH Brady's is dissolved in Concentrated Hasoy and methanol and then added to substance . Carbonyl group Causes bright orange ppt Brady's reacts with , Co in Ketones and Aldehydes The Iodoform Reaction A Carbony) Group that have methyl group react RLOCH3 + 3Ic + 48H- > R18O + CHIy + 3l / + 3H28 I Produced from Yellow PPE Alkali Methyl Carbonyl only exists H-P-cHz with Iodine Ethanal and in ketones with methyl Group - -2tt Ketone R , Ethanal Reduction of Aldehydes & Ketones Reagent NaBHy (Sodium Borshydride) Reducing Agent : H H + C c - ↓ H - c 1227H ↑ - C ↓ ↑ - C - C i H 2- 2 - c - GH ↓ I H ↓ pHH 2(H) - H HH - > H-C-C-2-H ↓ fi ketones get reduced to Secondary Alcohols KLN and Reagent Carbonyl Groups KCN : Mechanism Acidic Solution in H I I st 85 H- c -C-C n < H : form Hydroxynitrile HH HH 1 - i i HCN or Nucleophilic Addition to is H H , H - L-L-L-0 : IN ↓ CN- H · ↓ Fit OH N Hydrogen Provided due to Arich Aldehyde Equation RCH8 KLN : Equation : RLOR Ketone + + KCN + H + - + < RCHLOHSCN + H > RCRCOH)CN + It + It Racemates Products Racemic occur when an unsymetrical Carbong) Group is attacked CN : ~ Cetts - Of S -1 Planar & H/ k .... Cetts CN Racemic OH LN rect. : : Equal amount of both enautioners i Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives Carboxylic Acids Carboxylic Acids have the COOH functional Group Hydroxy "Carbonyl Groups , H = B L < -+ Ethanoic Acid - hidh i - 1 - 0 - KeCruO : I - : , HLI , H H-C-CEN - OH COL H I 2 thO + 2Hc1", + Benzoic Acid Hit t Cas H-4 G E Reagent for Nitriles to , 4 HH #(0), h ↓ KMn8 , I = NHyll +C-CyH H Hi Carboxylic Acid Reactions - Weak Acids - Reacts with Carbonate to form CO2 -Partially Dissociate to form Carboxylate ions - Reacts with Metals R- - R - OH = - 8 C - -+ H , + CHzC80H NaOH-CHyLOONa + NuzCAs- 2CHzLO8H + Mg - > > Dissociation H2O + CO2 2 CH3COoNa + ICHzL08H + , Carbonate H28 Neutralization , (CHz 200)= Mg2T +He Esterification Reagent : Alcohol and Haboy Catalyst and Carboxlyic Acid R-170 + R i = R-c -o-R + C 8 H OH' 4-chloro-3-hydroxybutansicAid , Reagent for Alcohols + - L-C-C-C Making Carboxylic Acid H -(1 = =A ~ H-C-C H H is + 1 " - H Carboxylic Acid Reduction Reagent LiAlHy in dry other solvent : HzL-2104 4 + # CH3 HyL-CH2 Hydrolysis Ester Reagent Acid under Reflux Acid Hydrolysis : H 8 H- C C + H - & i O - C - H C - H HI Hyf + i H -A +C C + - H H O-H - 0 - H -H I, I Reagent NagH under reflux : Ec = He B # HH - C - - H + of H f Ho F H-c H Hi + H Metal adds on Aliphatic Amines Reagent HabgenoAlkane with : M it I I HC Ammonia excess , - H it C A - Cl H 1 g- HH H ↓ H I CI- HN : Hab Alkane and CN Reagent : Igt I H - C ethanolic KIN under reflux H H - i 2 - H - it in Est : CN- H + : t H-C-C-NH > k4 T - , H H-C-C -N - H !if > - ↑H H-C-C-NHz hi : Ntz NHYLI- Analytical techniques Infra-Red Spectroscopy - Vibrational Increase energy of Lovalent bond in Sample frequency of IR Absorbed depends of the bond 1, the Atom citter side 2, Position in Spectrometer Mass - of bond on the molecule Isotope - Elements have different Isotopes which get separated - Element islonised and results in Charged Particle a Relative Atomic Mass Mass Spectrometer = - = H x It (AxEA)(B + MLB Molecule the number of Carbon atoms n in Can be found by the Mass Spec
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