1. REVISION OF TEXT TYPES BEFORE THE FINAL EXAMINATION It may be of benefit for you to learn some of the most obvious conventions of various text types, that you will have dealt with throughout the course. This glossary aims to give you 10 terms per text type, so as not to overwhelm you. The first text types provided have already appeared in the Paper 1 examinations since 2013. THE LANGUAGE OF COMICS Feature Definition Panel One still image in a sequence of images Inset A panel contained within a larger panel Bleed Panel Art extends over the edge of the page Splash A very large or full-page panel Lettering Any text on a comic’s page. Bold lettering is used to emphasize words, large letters in dialogue represent shouting, and small dialogue lettering usually stands for whispering. Dialogue and caption lettering is usually all uppercase. Display lettering includes sound effects and any other text that is not contained in a balloon or caption (store signage, license plates, words on a computer screen, etc.). Word Balloon A bordered shape containing dialogue, usually with a tail that points to the speaker. Tailless balloons sometimes denote “voice-over” or off-panel dialogue. As with panels, balloons come in various shapes, the most common being ovoid. You can use different shapes for different characters or moods. To avoid distancing your readers, though, it’s best not to mix balloon shapes and styles willy-nilly. And to avoid sounding like an amateur, don’t call balloons “bubbles.” Thought A bordered shape containing a character’s unspoken thoughts. Thought balloons almost Balloon always have bumpy, cloudlike borders and tails that look like trails of bubbles. Do not overuse them, especially not for lengthy internal monologues — that’s a terrible cliché in comics. As in movies, the maxim is “show, don’t tell.” Caption A tool often used for narration, transitional text (“Meanwhile...”), or off-panel dialogue. Captions usually have rectangular borders, but can also be borderless or floating letters. Sound effects Stylized lettering that represents noises within a scene. Most SFX are floating letters, and (SFX) sometimes they’re an integral part of the imagery. As with many other elements of comics, overuse of sound effects is distracting. They should be reserved for significant sounds, whether large (explosions) or small (a door softly closing on a lonely room). Borders The lines that enclose panels, balloons, and captions. Various styles and line weights can be used to evoke different effects or moods. Typical examples include rough or jagged borders for anger or distress; thin, wavy borders for weakness or spookiness; “electric” balloons and tails for radio, TV, or telephone dialogue; burst or double-bordered balloons for very loud shouting, and rounded panel corners or uneven borders for flashbacks. In some comics, such as Sandman (DC/Vertigo), major characters have their own distinctive balloon border and lettering styles. Different background colours or borders can also be used to denote different characters or types of dialogue/narration. Gutter The space, usually white, between and around panels. Coloured or shaded gutters can help establish mood, denote flashbacks, or be used purely for aesthetic effect. Here are some of the ways comic panels may move from one to the next: 1. Moment to moment: Consecutive panels portraying the same subject (e.g., a person or thing) during a sequence of different moments, with little time elapsing between panels. 2. Action to action: Panels showing the same subject in a sequence of different yet connected actions, with more time between panels than in moment-to-moment transitions. 3. Subject to subject: Panels depicting different subjects within the same scene, such as two people conversing and elements of their surroundings. 4. Scene to scene: As you might guess, panels that show completely different scenes. In such transitions, the gutter usually represents a substantial distance across time, space, or both. Captions, dialogue, and panel composition are good tools for bridging scene changes between panels. Cartoons may feature the following literary devices: Irony, Sarcasm, Double Entendre.. The Language of Newspapers Homophones Words that have same pronunciation but differ in meaning. Homonym Word that has more than one meaning Polyseme A word that has two or more closely related meanings, for example head can be a part of the body or person in charge, Intertextuality the interrelationship between texts, especially works of literature; the way that similar or related texts influence, reflect, or differ from each other: the intertextuality between two novels with the same setting. Sensationalism Sensationalism is a type of editorial bias in mass media in which events and topics in news stories and pieces are over-hyped to increase viewership of readership numbers Omission of grammatical words determiners like the, a, this, that and auxiliaries often left out. (attributes, roles and qualities) Vague Language A device used by the media to avoid honest reporting Noun Phrases Again guides the reader to feel a certain way about topics and people. Class Shift This is often done in headlines - Many words have the ability to be a noun of a verb. For example chase. By using chase as a noun in ‘BANDIT’ CAR CHASE POLICE INSTRUCTOR FINED 750 POUNDS AFTER DEATH OF NURSE’ the write manages to include action without having to include it as a verb. The implied reader the implied reader is the created reader whereby the writer identifies a group who is named in the story whom a share set of values is given to, usually in opposition to another group who do not share, or attack these values. Naming Analyse the way people are represented through the choice of naming: full name, surname, nickname. What do these names suggest? Modality The modal verbs used are used to guide the reader to view ideas in the same way as the journalist. Adverbials can also do this in the same way. Newsworthiness http://www.mediacollege.com/journalism/new s/newsworthy.html. Also include relevance and extraordinariness. Euphemisms A euphemism is a generally innocuous word or expression used in place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something unpleasant Bias The Language of Web Pages The banner Depending on how it's used, a banner is either a graphic image that announces the name or identity of a site (and often is spread across the width of the Web page) The contents page The Footer Like a document footer, a Web page footer contains information listed at the bottom of the page. The footer is also treated as its own section of the Web page, separate from the header, content and sidebars. The menu bar a horizontal bar, typically located at the top of the screen below the title bar, containing drop-down menus. Links a link from a hypertext document to another location, activated by clicking on a highlighted word or image. Personalisation Many websites may ask you to sign in so that your experience is personalised and your web history recorded. Social Networking the use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users, or to find people with similar interests to one's own. Advertising The Language of conversation Filled Pause hesitation such as ‘um’ or ‘eh’ Filler A word of little meaning often inserted into Everyday speech such as ‘like’ or ‘mind’ Tag question A question attached to the end of a statement Interrupted constructions One construction abandoned in favour of Another Disjointed constructions Utterances which aren’t grammatically Correct Repetitions False starts Changing from one grammatical Construction in favour of another before The initial construction has been Completed. Turn taking Generally when in conversation we take Turns. Only 5% of conversations contain Overlapping speech Adjacency pairs A two-part exchange that follows a Predictable pattern. A question followed By an answer is an example. Politeness Principles Accommodation theory: Developed by Howard Giles in 1970s. It states that we adjust our speech to accommodate others. CONVERGENCE: We move our speech closer to another person. DIVERGENCE: When people’s styles of speech move apart. DOWNWARD CONVERGENCE: Aims to decrease social difference between groups. For example, someone who speaks using Received Pronunciation may tone down his or her accent to fit in. UPWARD CONVERGENCE: Again to decrease social distance but this time the person with a stronger accent might tone it down for an interview perhaps. MUTUAL CONVERGENCE: Where both participants converge towards one another. THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE – Grice’s four Maxims In order to engage in a polite conversation, without causing offence, there are certain principles to which we adhere, perhaps unconsciously. These principles can be broken down in four maxims. QUANTITY – where we say neither more nor less than required. RELEVANCE- your point should be relevant to the ONGOING conversation MANNER – Avoid ambiguity or obscurity QUALITY – Be truthful and not say anything that you believe to be false The Language of Propaganda https://docs.google.com/document/d/1NK6z704X3VLI3VTL5tShCSTyGOFE3mQsWQH72JAHvg/edit See above link for further definitions. Assertion (the Big Lie): Assertion is commonly used in advertising and modern propaganda. An assertion is an enthusiastic or energetic statement presented as a fact, although it is not necessarily true. They often imply that the statement requires no explanation or back up, but that it should merely be accepted without question. Examples of assertion, although somewhat scarce in wartime propaganda, can be found often in modern advertising propaganda. Any time an advertiser states that their product is the best without providing evidence for this, they are using an assertion. The subject, ideally, should simply agree to the statement without searching for additional information or reasoning. Assertions, although usually simple to spot, are often dangerous forms of propaganda because they often include falsehoods or lies. Bandwagon: Bandwagon is one of the most common techniques in both wartime and peacetime and plays an important part in modern advertising. Bandwagon is also one of the seven main propaganda techniques identified by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis in 1938. Bandwagon is an appeal to the subject to follow the crowd, to join in because others are doing so as well. Bandwagon propaganda is, essentially, trying to convince the subject that one side is the winning side, because more people have joined it. The subject is meant to believe that since so many people have joined, that victory is inevitable and defeat impossible. Since the average person always wants to be on the winning side, he or she is compelled to join in. However, in modern propaganda, bandwagon has taken a new twist. The subject is to be convinced by the propaganda that since everyone else is doing it, they will be left out if they do not. This is, effectively, the opposite of the other type of bandwagon, but usually provokes the same results. Subjects of bandwagon are compelled to join in because everyone else is doing so as well. When confronted with bandwagon propaganda, we should weigh the pros and cons of joining in independently from the amount of people who have already joined, and, as with most types of propaganda, we should seek more information. Card stacking (Cherry Picking/Confirmation Bias): Card stacking, or selective omission, is one of the seven techniques identified by the IPA, or Institute for Propaganda Analysis. It involves only presenting information that is positive to an idea or proposal and omitting information contrary to it. Card stacking is used in almost all forms of propaganda, and is extremely effective in convincing the public. Although the majority of information presented by the card stacking approach is true, it is dangerous because it omits important information. The best way to deal with card stacking is to get more information. Glittering Generalities: Glittering generalities was one of the seven main propaganda techniques identified by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis in 1938. It also occurs very often in politics and political propaganda. Glittering generalities are words that have different positive meaning for individual subjects, but are linked to highly valued concepts. When these words are used, they demand approval without thinking, simply because such an important concept is involved. For example, when a person is asked to do something in "defense of democracy" they are more likely to agree. The concept of democracy has a positive connotation to them because it is linked to a concept that they value. Words often used as glittering generalities are honor, glory, love of country, and especially in the United States, freedom. When coming across with glittering generalities, we should especially consider the merits of the idea itself when separated from specific words. Lesser of Two Evils: The "lesser of two evils" technique tries to convince us of an idea or proposal by presenting it as the least offensive option. This technique is often implemented during wartime to convince people of the need for sacrifices or to justify difficult decisions. This technique is often accompanied by adding blame on an enemy country or political group. One idea or proposal is often depicted as one of the only options or paths. When confronted with this technique, the subject should consider the value of any proposal independently of those it is being compared with. Name Calling (labeling/using euphemisms): Name calling occurs often in politics and wartime scenarios, but very seldom in advertising. It is another of the seven main techniques designated by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis. It is the use of derogatory language or words that carry a negative connotation when describing an enemy. The propaganda attempts to arouse prejudice among the public by labeling the target something that the public dislikes. Often, name calling is employed using sarcasm and ridicule, and shows up often in political cartoons or writings. When examining name calling propaganda, we should attempt to separate our feelings about the name and our feelings about the actual idea or proposal. Pinpointing the Enemy (scapegoating): Pinpointing the enemy is used extremely often during wartime, and also in political campaigns and debates. This is an attempt to simplify a complex situation by presenting one specific group or person as the enemy. Although there may be other factors involved the subject is urged to simply view the situation in terms of clear-cut right and wrong. When coming in contact with this technique, the subject should attempt to consider all other factors tied into the situation. As with almost all propaganda techniques, the subject should attempt to find more information on the topic. An informed person is much less susceptible to this sort of propaganda. Plain Folks: The plain folks propaganda technique was another of the seven main techniques identified by the IPA, or Institute for Propaganda Analysis. The plain folks device is an attempt by the propagandist to convince the public that his views reflect those of the common person and that they are also working for the benefit of the common person. The propagandist will often attempt to use the accent of a specific audience as well as using specific idioms or jokes. Also, the propagandist, especially during speeches, may attempt to increase the illusion through imperfect pronunciation, stuttering, and a more limited vocabulary. Errors such as these help add to the impression of sincerity and spontaneity. This technique is usually most effective when used with glittering generalities, in an attempt to convince the public that the propagandist views about highly valued ideas are similar to their own and therefore more valid. When confronted by this type of propaganda, the subject should consider the proposals and ideas separately from the personality of the presenter. Simplification (Stereotyping): Simplification is extremely similar to pinpointing the enemy, in that it often reduces a complex situation to a clear-cut choice involving good and evil. This technique is often useful in swaying uneducated audiences. When faced with simplification, it is often useful to examine other factors and pieces of the proposal or idea, and, as with all other forms of propaganda, it is essential to get more information. Testimonials: Testimonials are another of the seven main forms of propaganda identified by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis. Testimonials are quotations or endorsements, in or out of context, which attempt to connect a famous or respectable person with a product or item. Testimonials are very closely connected to the transfer technique, in that an attempt is made to connect an agreeable person to another item. Testimonials are often used in advertising and political campaigns. When coming across testimonials, the subject should consider the merits of the item or proposal independently of the person of organization giving the testimonial. Transfer (Association): Transfer is another of the seven main propaganda terms first used by the Institute for Propaganda Analysis in 1938. Transfer is often used in politics and during wartime. It is an attempt to make the subject view a certain item in the same way as they view another item, to link the two in the subjects mind. Although this technique is often used to transfer negative feelings for one object to another, it can also be used in positive ways. By linking an item to something the subject respects or enjoys, positive feelings can be generated for it. However, in politics, transfer is most often used to transfer blame or bad feelings from one politician to another of his friends or party members, or even to the party itself. When confronted with propaganda using the transfer technique, we should question the merits or problems of the proposal or idea independently of convictions about other objects or proposals. False Dilemma When politicians present false dilemmas, they essentially claim that there are only two answers to one problem. Name-calling and pinpointing the enemy It is the use of derogatory language or words that carry a negative connotation when describing an enemy. The The string of logic George W Bush presents is simple and binary: Americans can on the one hand bring the battle to the enemy, or on the other they can deny the problem exists, ignore it or pass it on to future congresses. In essence Americans are being presented with two extremes and told to choose between the lesser of two evils. There is really no choice involved in such statements, and the dilemma created is actually a false one. propaganda attempts to arouse prejudice among the public by labeling the target something that the public dislikes. This is an attempt to simplify a complex situation by presenting one specific group or person as the enemy. Although there may be other factors involved the subject is urged to simply view the situation in terms of clear-cut right and wrong. Simplification Simplifying a complicated situation resulting in the stereotypical formation of stereotypical images which are often distortions of the truth. Glittering generalities Words connected to worthy abstract concepts, such as freedom, democracy and justice that would be difficult if not impossible to be against. Card Stacking The act of selectively including arguments that support your cause while ignoring the counter argument. Bandwagon Bandwagon is an appeal to the subject to follow the crowd, to join in because others are doing so as well. Bandwagon propaganda is, essentially, trying to convince the subject that one side is the winning side, because more people have joined it. Many groups have been referred to as terrorists, not just organisations behind terrorist attacks. Rhetorical Devices The Language of Rhetoric One of the popular features of Martin Luther King was his use of rhetoric, the art of using language effectively or persuasively. Device Definition Logos Based on reasoned argument. No decent speech is without this. Pathos Works on the emotions of the audience – perhaps the most important. Ethos Dependent on individual character of the speaker – which will determine his viewpoint/ tone – important when contextualising the speeches. Interrogatives/ Rhetorical questions Hypophora Question without expecting an answer Hypophora is a figure of speech in which the speaker Example poses a question and then answers the question. Patterning such as tricolon and polysyndenton Tripling syndetic and asyndetic listing varied sentence lengths Listing Emotive language Evokes Pathos Personal pronouns You, I, We, Us, They, She, He Reflexive pronouns Reflexive pronouns are words ending in -self or selves that are used when the subject and the object of a sentence are the same (e.g., I believe in myself). They can act as either objects or indirect objects. The nine English reflexive pronouns are mysel f, yourself, himself, What Are Reflexive Pronouns? Rules and Examples | Grammarly herself, oneself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and the mselves. Possessive pronouns pronouns like mine, yours, or theirs used to show ownership in the noun form Onomatopoeia Words used to represent sounds Metaphor a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable Syllogism A logical argument in three parts – two premises and a conclusion which follows necessarily from them. Irony Deliberate use of words to mean the opposite of their literal meaning Isocolon The use of clauses or phrases of equal words or syllables Antithesis Words balanced in contrast Anaphora Repetition of a word (or more) at the beginning of consecutive sentences Hyperbole Use of exaggeration Litotes Understatement where a negative is stated to further affirm a positive Allusion Object is indirectly referred to Parenthesis () Often used to clarify as a brief notation (also called a gloss) (see what I did there) or what is being said is aside from the main point Sound Patterning Any phonological sounds and patterns “The Shot heard around the world” Intention of emphasis on what is being described “Not bad” = Good or mediocre depending on tone Biblical allusions are common The Crucible alludes to Shakespeare’s Macbeth when portraying Parris’ cowardly nature with the same use of a dagger Plosive Fricative Sibilance monosyllabic polysyllabic cacophonic euphonic assonance The Language of Advertising Bandwagon effect Bandwagon is an appeal to the subject to follow the crowd, to join in because others are doing so as well. Bandwagon propaganda is, essentially, trying to convince the subject that one side is the winning side, because more people have joined it. Testimonials In a testimonial, an end user of a product or service, as opposed to the manufacturer or creator, attests to its effectiveness and explains how others can benefit. Testimonial advertising uses a number of techniques Celebrities A form of brand or advertising campaign that involves a well known person using their fame to help promote a product or service. Manufacturers of perfumes and clothing are some of the most common business users of classic celebrity endorsement techniques, such as television ads and launch event appearances, in the marketing of their products. Association Linking a product with certain values Image slogan The minimal text which should be short, catchy and poignant. Copy Further info in the small print. Signature Traditionally ads show a product and the company name. However more often, internet addresses are given instead. Counter-advertising Counteradvertising is “Advertising that takes a position contrary to an advertising message that preceded it. Such advertising may be used to take an opposing position on a controversial topic, or to counter an impression that might be made by another party's advertising.”[1] Counteradvertising is often seen informally on controversial topics like smoking. Anti-ads Anti-ads, like counter ads, breaks the conventions of a traditional ad. Sometimes the ad may have nothing to do with product such as Benetton ads which may raise awareness of political problems, but it shocks and if people can stop and think then they have been successful. Philanthropic ads Consumers consume commercial products without feeling guilty because companies support a noble cause such as AIDS and the fight against animal cruelty. Culture jamming Where individuals and groups distort the messages and advertisements of large corporations Parody and Pastiche When individuals take on a well-known ad and change it to give it new meaning, they are in essence parodying the style of that ad. Parody is the art of mocking someone or something by imitating them or their style. Pastiche is another way of drawing attention to a cultural value. It also makes use of imitation, but not by obviously parodying a particular text in a genre, often passing itself off as a genuine example of a text type. The Language of Poetry and Key Time Periods which could come up in the examination Romantic Often Romanticism An artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 1700s and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. 2. Romantic quality or spirit in thought, expression, or action. Metaphysical The word ‘Metaphysical Poetry’ is a philosophical concept used in literature where poets portray the things/ideas that are beyond the depiction of physical existence. Etymologically, there is a combination of two words ‘meta’ and ‘physical in the word “metaphysical”.’ The first word “Meta” means beyond. So metaphysical means beyond physical, beyond the normal and ordinary. What is Metaphysical Poetry? (Definition and Characteristics) - Literary English Victorian While Victorian interest in medievalism does depart from Romantic poetry, it cannot be overlooked that Romantics, such as Keats and Coleridge, did use medieval themes in their poetry. For examples of this see “La Belle Dame Sans Merci,” “Christabel,” or “The Eve of St. Agnes.” The Victorian interest in science and technology is one characteristic of the Victorian age and Victorian poetry. The Victorians, for instance, invented the modern idea of invention, meaning that the Victorians came up with the notion that an individual can create solutions to problems. In other words, the Victorians, believed that the individual could create new means of bettering the self and the environment. This leads to what is, perhaps, the defining feature of the Victorian age: social responsibility. This is the basic attitude that differentiates the Victorians from their immediate predecessors, the Romantics. Tennyson, for example, traveled to Spain to help the insurgents, as Byron had gone to Greece and Wordsworth to France. Tennyson, unlike Byron and Wordsworth, would also posit the need to educate the poor. Tennyson, like Dickens, would write to promulgate a need for larger social responsibility on the part of the middle and upper classes. In terms of religion, the Victorians experienced a great age of doubt. This was the first age that called institutional Christianity into question on such a large scale. In literature and the visual arts, the Victorians worked to combine Romantic emphasizes on self, emotion, and imagination with Neoclassical features that called upon the public role of art and a corollary responsibility of the artist. Realism Realism coincided with Victorianism, yet was a distinct collection of aesthetic principles in its own right. The realist novel was heavily informed by journalistic techniques, such as objectivity and fidelity to the facts of the matter. It is not a coincidence that many of the better known novelists of the time had concurrent occupations in the publishing industry. The idea of novelwriting as a “report” grew out of this marriage between literature and journalism. Another fair comparison would be to think of the realist novel as an early form of docudrama, in which fictional persons and events are intended to seamlessly reproduce the real world. The Victorian Period saw growing concern with the plight of the less fortunate in society, and the realistic novel likewise turned its attention on subjects that beforehand would not have warranted notice. The balancing act that the upwardly mobile middle class had to perform in order to retain their position in the world was a typical subject for realistic novels. There arose a sub-genre of Realism called Social Realism, which in hindsight can be interpreted as Marxist and socialist ideas set forth in literature. Naturalism Naturalism sought to go further and be more explanatory than Realism by identifying the underlying causes for a person’s actions or beliefs. The thinking was that certain factors, such as heredity and social conditions, were unavoidable determinants in one’s life. A poor immigrant could not escape their life of poverty because their preconditions were the only formative aspects in his or her existence that mattered. Naturalism almost entirely dispensed with the notion of free will, or at least a free will capable of enacting real change in life’s circumstances. The theories of Charles Darwin are often identified as playing a role in the development of literary Naturalism; however, such a relationship does not stand up to investigative rigor. Darwin never applied his theories to human social behavior, and in doing so many authors seriously abused the actual science. There was in the late nineteenth century a fashion in sociology to apply evolutionary theory to human social woes. This line of thinking came to be knows as Social Darwinism, and today is recognized as the systematized, scientific racism that it is. More than a few atrocities in world history were perpetrated by those who misguidedly applied Darwinism to the social realm. Naturalism, for better or worse, is in some respects a form of Social Darwinism played out in fiction Modernism The Modernist Period in English Literature occupied the years from shortly after the beginning of the twentieth century through roughly 1965. In broad terms, the period was marked by sudden and unexpected breaks with traditional ways of viewing and interacting with the world. Experimentation and individualism became virtues, where in the past they were often heartily discouraged. Modernism was set in motion, in one sense, through a series of cultural shocks. The first of these great shocks was the Great War, which ravaged Europe from 1914 through 1918, known now as World War One. At the time, this “War to End All Wars” was looked upon with such ghastly horror that many people simply could not imagine what the world seemed to be plunging towards. The first hints of that particular way of thinking called Modernism stretch back into the nineteenth century. As literary periods go, Modernism displays a relatively strong sense of cohesion and similarity across genres and locales. Furthermore, writers who adopted the Modern point of view often did so quite deliberately and self-consciously. Indeed, a central preoccupation of Modernism is with the inner self and consciousness. In contrast to the Romantic world view, the Modernist cares rather little for Nature, Being, or the overarching structures of history. Instead of progress and growth, the Modernist intelligentsia sees decay and a growing alienation of the individual. The machinery of modern society is perceived as impersonal, capitalist, and antagonistic to the artistic impulse. War most certainly had a great deal of influence on such ways of approaching the world. Two World Wars in the span of a generation effectively shell-shocked all of Western civilization. Existentialism The Modernist Period in English Literature occupied the years from shortly after the beginning of the twentieth century through roughly 1965. In broad terms, the period was marked by sudden and unexpected breaks with traditional ways of viewing and interacting with the world. Experimentation and individualism became virtues, where in the past they were often heartily discouraged. Modernism was set in motion, in one sense, through a series of cultural shocks. The first of these great shocks was the Great War, which ravaged Europe from 1914 through 1918, known now as World War One. At the time, this “War to End All Wars” was looked upon with such ghastly horror that many people simply could not imagine what the world seemed to be plunging towards. The first hints of that particular way of thinking called Modernism stretch back into the nineteenth century. As literary periods go, Modernism displays a relatively strong sense of cohesion and similarity across genres and locales. Furthermore, writers who adopted the Modern point of view often did so quite deliberately and self-consciously. Indeed, a central preoccupation of Modernism is with the inner self and consciousness. In contrast to the Romantic world view, the Modernist cares rather little for Nature, Being, or the overarching structures of history. Instead of progress and growth, the Modernist intelligentsia sees decay and a growing alienation of the individual. The machinery of modern society is perceived as impersonal, capitalist, and antagonistic to the artistic impulse. War most certainly had a great deal of influence on such ways of approaching the world. Two World Wars in the span of a generation effectively shell-shocked all of Western civilization. Beat In American in the 1950s, a new cultural and literary movement staked its claim on the nation’s consciousness. The Beat Generation was never a large movement in terms of sheer numbers, but in influence and cultural status they were more visible than any other competing aesthetic. The years immediately after the Second World War saw a wholesale reappraisal of the conventional structures of society. Just as the postwar economic boom was taking hold, students in universities were beginning to question the rampant materialism of their society. The Beat Generation was a product of this questioning. They saw runaway capitalism as destructive to the human spirit and antithetical to social equality. In addition to their dissatisfaction with consumer culture, the Beats railed against the stifling prudery of their parents’ generation. The taboos against frank discussions of sexuality were seen as unhealthy and possibly damaging to the psyche. In the world of literature and art, the Beats stood in opposition to the clean, almost antiseptic formalism of the early twentieth century Modernists. They fashioned a literature that was more bold, straightforward, and expressive than anything that had come before. Underground music styles like jazz were especially evocative for Beat writers, while threatening and sinister to the establishment. To many, the artistic productions of the Beats crossed the line into pornography and therefore merited censorship. Some dismissed the Beat Generation’s literature as mere provocation – a means to get attention, not serious art. Time has proven that the cultural impact of the Beat writers was far from short-lived, as the influence of their work continues to be widespread. When analyzing poetry, make sure you discuss the following features Themes and Ideas and title Form Connotations of title Main issues discussed Sub-text ü Free Verse ü Enjambment ü Foregrounding ü End focus ü Volta ü Meter ü Poem form – Ballad, lyric, sonnet etc ü Juxtaposition of content ü Narrative type Meter - iambic di/ tri/ tetra/ pentameter anapestic meter - da da dum rhyming couplets/ triplets alternate line rhyme Heroic couplet internal rhyme masculine, half-rhyme iambic, trochaic volta Caesura Tone and mood Literary devices ü Metaphor ü Simile ü Allusion ü Imagery ü Symbolism ü Personification ü Anthropomorphism ü Pathetic fallacy ü Antithesis ü Paradox ü Oxymoron ü Juxtaposition ü Tripling ü Repetition ü Hyperbole Linguistic devices YOU KNOW THEM ALL!!!! Context (If you can work out) Grammar ü Primary influences – including writer’s admired ü Characteristics ü Background ü Philosophy ü Sentence type – minor, simple, compound, complex ü Syntax – modern word order? ü Types of punctuation used and effect ü Parallelism ü Non –standard features ü Listing (syndetic, asyndetic) ü Declarative, interrogative, imperative ü Tense ü Dialect Ellipsis