The Discipline of
Anatomy
Dr. D. Russa
Head Dept. of Anatomy
School of Medicine, MUHAS
adrussa@yahoo.com
0718 31 65 88
November 2020
Course/Module Objectives
• Be able to use correct terminology in the
medical/health professions
• Demonstrate the understanding of body
composition (macroscopically & microscopically):
– Bones, muscles, nerves ,joints, skin
– Internal organs: brain, meninges, lungs, heart,
liver, pancreas, stomach, intestines, genitourinary
organs
• Link/ apply the organ structure with disease
mechanisms and approaches to management
of diseases
History &Language
of Anatomy
Session Objectives
• At the end of this session you should be
able to:
• Describe the history and composition of
anatomy as a discipline of the medical
profession
• Use proper anatomical terminology in
describing various body
Anatomy as a discipline
• Study of the structure of the body
in its normal health condition
• Is the foundation of the medical
knowledge
• Comes from Greek words – ana
(body) tome ( cutting)
Founders of Anatomy
Hippocrates
Hippocrates----BC 460~377
in Present day Greece
Father of Medicine
Author of Hippocratic Oath
Who is Mother of
Nursing?...FN
Other professions: Find out!!!
Herophilus of Alexandria 325-255 B. C
Herophilus is considered true
founder of Anatomy as a
discipline of the ancient
times
Conducted numerous
dissections on animals and
later cadavers
The first person to describe
the majority of internal
organs of the body
The Ancient Alexandrian Medical School
Established in Egypt by the then world great emperor
Alexander the Great in 3rd Century BC. The school stated to
fade in 389 AD due to devastating fire outbreak.
Anatomy was mainly the earliest discipline to evolve at
Alexandria along /followed by other medical disciplines
From Alexandria dissectionbased
anatomy
modern
methods such as microscopy,
histochemical stains further
developed the discipline of
Anatomy
Aelius Galenus (Galen of Pargamum)
(Present day Turkey)
Galen--------AD 130~200
-Great cerebral vein of
Galen
-Circulatory, Nervous
and Respiratory system
-Errors: Believed Veins
converged in the Liver
Andreas Vesalius
Vesalius------(1514~1564)
Belgian Nationality
Founder of modern Anatomy and Pathology
William Harvey
Harvey-----(1578~1657)
Described
correctly the CVS
Joseph Karashani (1940-2011)
UDSM Muhimbili 1971-1985
UNZA 1985-2011
First indigenous anatomist
A naturally gifted anatomist
Infamous for his hand- drawn
illustrations of tissues and organs/
embryology at a time when
visual/digital technology was
inexistent
Taught many early Tanzanian health
professionals and later, the Zambian
Amon Kaduri (1947-2001 )
Worked UDSM Muhimbili 1974-2001
One of the forerunners of Anatomy in
Tanzania
Wrote many applied Anatomy books used in
many EAC medical schools.
A gifted anatomical illustrator with handdrawn sketches of tissues and organs/
embryology at a time when visual/digital
technology was inexistent.
Participated in the training of many early
Tanzanian doctors but cut short with an
untimely death
Anatomical sub-disciplines
1. Gross anatomy
2. Histology & Cell biology
3. Embryology
4. Neuroanatomy
Gross anatomy
• Also known as macroscopic anatomy
• Studied by dissecting the cadaver or use anatomical models
• Can be studied by REGIONAL or SYSTEMIC approach
• The body is divided into SIX regions
-the upper limb
-head and neck
-abdomen
-thorax
-lower limb.
-pelvis and
perineum
Regional approach:
Studies the boundaries, contents,
structures etc. in a a particular region
Including: bones, joints, muscles, fasciae,
blood vessels, lymphatic,
drainage, nerves.
Systemic approach:
Divides the body into various systems
Osteology-bones
Myology-muscles,
Arthrology-joints
Angiology-blood vessels
Neurology– nerves Digestive system
Urinary system,
Reproductive system
Endocrine system
Methods of study of Gross Anatomy
-Dissection and observation (cadaver)
-Radiography
-Ultrasonography/Ultrasound/
-Computed tomography (CT),
-Magnetic Resonance Imaging
-Angiography
-Endoscopy
-Surface anatomy
In the
Dissecting
Room
Chest radiograph (X-ray)
Normal
TB
Radiographic Anatomy
Ultrasound scans of a growing embryo
during pregnancy
Radiographic Anatomy
Lumbar CT scan
CT or CAT= Computed Axial Tomography
Radiographic Anatomy
Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI)
scan of the head
MRCP Imaging
Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatography
Anatomical/ Medical
prefixes/ suffixes
Adeno- gland. Adenoid is a lymph gland
found in the
nasopharynx.
Alba- white. Albinism is the white
appearance of skin lacking melanin.
Algia- pain. Neuroalgia is a pain
following the course of a nerve.
Angi- vessel. Angioplasty is the repair of
a blood vessel.
Arthro- joint. Arthritis is the
inflammation of skeletal joints.
Medical prefixes/ suffixes -2
Blast- immature. Osteoblastoma = cancer
of bone cells.
Brachi- arm. The brachialis muscle moves
the arm.
Broncho- trachea, windpipe. Bronchitis is
the inflammation of the upper
respiratory system.
Bucc- cheek. The buccinator muscle is in
the cheek.
Capit- head. Obliqus capitis muscle of
Head/Neck
Anatomical/ Medical prefixes
Cardia- heart. Cardiac
arrest,Cardiovascular diseases
Cephal- (towards) head. Cephalic vein
Cerebro- brain. Cerebral hermispheres
Chole- bile, gall. Cholecystectomy is
removal of the gallbladder, cholangitis
Chondro- cartilage. A chondrocyte is a
cartilage cell.
Corpus- body. Corpus albicans/ luteus is
the white/ yellow body inside an ovary.
Anatomical/ Medical prefixes
Cost- rib. Costal cartilages attach ribs to
the sternum/ costal resection
Cysti- sac, bladder egCystitis / urachal
cycst/
Dactyl- digits. Polydactyly extra fingers.
Derma- skin. Dermatitis-skin disease/
dermatologist
Dura- tough, hard. Dura mater is the
tough covering around the brain and
spinal cord.
Entero- intestine. Gastroenteritis is
inflammation of the GIT/intestines.
Anatomical/ Medical prefixes
Myo- muscle. Myocardial infarction
Necro- death/ decay. Necrosis is death
of cell tissue/ necropsy
Nephro- kidney. Nephrons-functional
units of a kidney/ Nephrology
Neuro- nerve. Neurons are individual
nerve cells/ Neurology
Odont- tooth. Othodontics refers to
repair of teeth.
Anatomical/ Medical prefixes
Ophthalm- eye. Ophthalmologymedical/surgical specialty of eye
diseases/
Oro- mouth. The oral cavity/
Osse-, Osteo- bone. Osteoporosis/
Osteoarthris
Oto- ear. Otitis infection of the ear
Anatomical/ Medical prefixes
Phleb- vein. Phlebitis is inflammation of the
veins.
Phren- diaphragm, e.g the phrenic nerve supply
diaphragm
Pneumo- lung. Pneumonia inflamamation of
lungs.
Pulmo- lung. Pulmonary hypertension
Pyo- pus. Pyruria is pus in the urine.
Rhin- nose. Rhinitis
Stasis- stoppage/ stand still. Hemostasis
Thromb- clot, lump. Thrombosis refers to a
clot in the heart or blood vessel.
Anatomical Terms of
Reference
• These are important for smooth
communication among health
professionals
• Also for communication with
patients
Anatomical Position
• When referring to the body, we
communicate with other health
professionals and also with patients
clearly
• We therefore use the Anatomical
Position as a reference.
• There are other common patient
positions used for different clinical
procedures
Anatomical Position
• Body: Upright in
the vertical axis
• Legs and feet:
parallel
• Arms: hanging by
sides
• Fingers: Extended
• Palms and face:
Directed forward
Lithotomy position
• A common position for
surgical procedures and
medical examinations
• Most suitable for
procedures involving the
lower abdomen, pelvis
and perineum
• A common position for
childbirth/ delivery
Decubitus (recumbent) position
Note: there are many modifications to the position
e. g: forward tilt, limb flexion, extension
Supine and prone positions
Other common positions
Patient with
respiratory or
cardiac condition
Patient with
hypovolemic shoc
Note: there are many modifications to Fowler’s
e. g: Low, High, Semi, Cardiac etc
Clinical and Applied Anatomy:
In a First Aid attempt a boy with epistaxis
was laid on his side and plugged with
cotton gauze in his nostrils. Which body
position is this?
A. Fowler
B. Decubitus
C. Supine
D. Anatomical
E. Trendelenberg
Body Planes
Imaginary lines that
divide the
body into different parts
Sagittal
• The median or sagittal plane
passes through the body
dividing it in right and left
halves
• Parasagittal/paramedian refers
to cuts through the body that
are parallel to the sagittal line
Coronal/Frontal
• The coronal or frontal plane
passes through the body
dividing it into front
(anterior) and back
(posterior) halves
Transverse plane
• The transverse plane or
horizontal plane divides
the body into upper
(superior) and lower
(inferior) halves
Body planes
Terms of
direction
Superior/Inferior
• Axis of reference = transverse
• Superior
– A structure is superior when it is above or on
the upper side of another structure
• Inferior
– A structure is inferior when it is below or on
the lower side of another structure
• Example
– The lungs are SUPERIOR to the liver…but,
we could also say that the liver is INFERIOR
to the lungs
Terms of
Direction
Cranial/caudal
• Same as superior (cranial) and
inferior (caudal)
• Cranial = toward the head
• Caudal = toward the rump
• These terms are especially
used in Embryology
Anterior/Posterior
• Axis of reference = coronal
• Anterior
–A structure is anterior when it is in front
of another structure
• Posterior
–A structure is posterior when it is behind
another structure
• Example
–The mouth is ANTERIOR to the ears
and the ears are POSTERIOR to the
mouth
Ventral/Dorsal
• Same as anterior (ventral) and posterior
(dorsal)
• Especially used in Embryology
• In the feet and hands replaced with
–ventral surface of the hand = palmar
–ventral surface of the foot = plantar
–In both the hands and feet, the dorsal
surface/dorsum keeps its name
Superficial/Deep
• Axis of reference = the body surface and the center of
the body or organ
• Superficial/superficialis
– A structure that is superficial is closer to the skin
than another structure
– E.g. Flexor digitorum superficialis muscle
• Deep/profundus
– A structure that is deep is closer to the center of the
body or extremity (and therefore, farther away from
the skin or outer surface of the body)
– E. g: Flexor digitorum profundus muscle
• Other example
– The abdominal muscles are SUPERFICIAL to the
intestines; the intestines are DEEP to the abdominal
External/Internal
• Same idea as superficial
(external) and deep
(internal) but used in
reference to a cavity
• E.g: External vs Internal
carotid artery
External vs Internal iliac
artery/vein
Medial/Lateral
• Axis of reference = sagittal plane
• Medial
–A structure that is medial is closer to the
median or sagittal line
• Lateral
–A structure that is lateral is farther away
from the median line
• Example
–The big toe is MEDIAL to the little toe;
the pinky toe is LATERAL to the big toe
Ipsilateral/Contralateral
• Point of reference = sagittal plane
• Commonly in neurology/ in regard to nerve distribution
• Ipsilateral
– A structure is ipsilateral to a structure when it is on
the same side of the body
• Contralateral
– A structure is contralateral to a structure when it is
on the opposite side of the body
• Example
– The heart is IPSILATERAL to the left lung, but
CONTRALATERAL to the right lung
Proximal/Distal
• Axis of reference = the center of the
body/structure
– usually used in reference to structures in the
extremities
• Proximal
– A structure that is proximal is closer to the
attachment of the body
• Distal
– A structure that is distal is farther away from the
attachment of the body
• Example
– The knee is PROXIMAL to the ankle; the ankle is
DISTAL to the knee, but proximal to the toes
Supination/Pronation
• Supination and
pronation are terms
that refer to movement
toward a supine or
prone position.
• The forearm pronates
when the palm is turned
towards the posterior
of the body
• The forearm supinates
when the palm is turned
towards the anterior of
the body
Clinical and Applied Anatomy:
Which movement is employed at the
forearm when loosening a bolt into a
nut with the right upper limb?
A. Circumduction
B. Anticlockwise rotation
C. Supination
D. Clockwise rotation
E. Pronation
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Terms of
movement
Adduction/Abduction
• Axis of reference = the center of the body or
structure/ SAGITTAL
• These terms are used to describe movement of
limbs in relation to the center of the body
• Adduction
– Movement toward the center of the body or
structure
• Abduction
– Movement away from the center of the body or
structure
Flexion/Extension
• Point of reference = the angle of a joint
• Flexion
– A movement that decreases the angle of a joint
• Extension
– A movement that increases the angle of a joint
• Muscles often include terms of flexion (flexor) and
extension (extensor) in their names
– Flexor digitorum profundus
– Extensor hallucis longus
Circumduction
Point of reference = the
center of a structure
• Circumduction is
multidirectional compound
movement around the
center of a structure
– The structure of the
shoulder allows the upper
extremity to circumduct
the shoulder joint
Movements of the Hand
Movements of the Hand and Foot
References for Module 1& 4