Study Guide Wednesday, November 27, 2024 9:21 PM Exchange Money: • Definition: An object or substance used for payment of goods or services. • Types of Money: 1. Commodity Money: Has inherent value beyond being used as money (e.g., gold, silver). 2. Fiat Money: Has no intrinsic value; its value is guaranteed by the government (e.g., paper money). Value: • The relative worth assigned to an object or service. • Cultural norms shape how value is assigned and what can be exchanged. For example: ○ What is acceptable to buy or sell? (e.g., art, organs, or labor). ○ How is value determined? Exchange: • Definition: Transfer of goods, services, or objects between social actors. • Cultural Importance: Gift exchanges may seem trivial in some societies but hold immense social significance in others (e.g., Christmas gifts). Market-Based Economies: • Relies on supply and demand for goods/services. • Alienation is common: ○ Workers produce commodities (mass-produced items) but feel disconnected from them since they are for buyers rather than personal use. • Commodities: Impersonal goods with no deeper meaning or connection to the worker who made them. Appropriation vs. Consumption: 1. Appropriation: Taking ownership of an object or idea (e.g., buying an item or personalizing it). 2. Consumption: Using an object and assigning meaning to it (e.g., wearing clothing in a way that expresses individuality). Alienation: • Workers are distanced from the products they create; the relationship between producer and consumer is purely transactional. Reciprocity: • Definition: The exchange of goods, services, or favors to build relationships. Alienation: • Workers are distanced from the products they create; the relationship between producer and consumer is purely transactional. Reciprocity: • Definition: The exchange of goods, services, or favors to build relationships. • Marshall Sahlins’ Reciprocity Types: 1. Generalized Reciprocity: § Between close relations; nothing expected in return (e.g., parent-child care). 2. Balanced Reciprocity: § Exchange with the expectation of return, though not immediate (e.g., birthday gifts). 3. Negative Reciprocity: § Bartering or exploiting to get the best personal gain, often among strangers or adversaries (e.g., theft). Kula and Potlatch: • Kula: ○ Found in the Trobriand Islands; a ceremonial exchange of Mwali (arm shells) and Soulava (necklaces). ○ These items are exchanged in opposite directions around a ring of islands, creating social bonds and prestige. ○ The objects hold value due to their history and connections, not material wealth. • Potlatch: ○ Among groups like the Salish and Kwakiutl, potlatches are feasts where items of value (e.g., copper plates) are given away or destroyed to showcase wealth and prestige. ○ Builds alliances, aids communities, and enhances reputation. Commonalities: • They are both intended to forge bonds between people and build prestige. • They are about gift giving and the relationships between people, not monetary exchanges in the realm of market-based economics. • They give us an insight on who has power and how they show off that power, which we will talk about more next lecture. Bodies and Healing What is Medical Anthropology? • Studies how culture influences health, illness, and healing systems. • Looks at the role of cultural beliefs, institutions, and social structures in shaping how health is experienced. Biomedicine: Bodies and Healing What is Medical Anthropology? • Studies how culture influences health, illness, and healing systems. • Looks at the role of cultural beliefs, institutions, and social structures in shaping how health is experienced. Biomedicine: • Western-style medicine emphasizing biological causes of disease and clinical treatments (e.g., antibiotics, surgeries). Health: • Often defined as the absence of illness, but this definition is complex and subjective. • Varies culturally in what is deemed "healthy" (e.g., the role of rest, diet, or stress). Sick Role: • Refers to cultural expectations of how a sick person should behave (e.g., staying in bed, cooperating with doctors). • Example: Medieval Europe’s lying-in rituals for pregnant women. Explanatory Models of Illness: • Different frameworks used by patients, families, and healthcare professionals to explain illness. • Example: The medicalization of alcoholism, redefining it from moral failing to a disease. Therapeutic Processes: 1. Clinical: Medicines with active ingredients (e.g., antibiotics). 2. Symbolic: Illness treated through rituals and symbolic actions. 3. Social Support: Family and friends providing emotional or physical aid. 4. Persuasion/Placebo: Belief in the treatment’s effectiveness produces results, even if the treatment lacks active ingredients. Medical Pluralism: • Coexistence of different medical systems (e.g., biomedicine alongside spiritual healing). Swallowing Frogs Example: • Women in northeastern Brazil described suppressing negative emotions as "swallowing frogs," which could lead to illness. • Highlights the cultural connection between emotion and physical health. Gender Identities Gender vs. Sex: • Sex: Biological differences (e.g., XX or XY chromosomes). • Gender: The complex and fluid intersections of biological sex, internal senses of self, outward expressions of identity, and cultural expecta5ons about how to perform that identity in appropriate ways. • Intersex: “Individuals who exhibit sexual organs and functions somewhere between male and female elements, often including elements of both.” ○ An umbrella term for a group of biological condition reflecting an unusual outward expressions of identity, and cultural expecta5ons about how to perform that identity in appropriate ways. • Intersex: “Individuals who exhibit sexual organs and functions somewhere between male and female elements, often including elements of both.” ○ An umbrella term for a group of biological condition reflecting an unusual combination of X and Y chromosomes (e.g., XO, XXY, XYY), and/or a discrepancy between external and internal genitals. ○ May not fit binary medical definitions of “female” or “male.” Gender Roles: • Assigned tasks based on gender (e.g., Rosie the Riveter during WWII showed shifting roles for women during wartime). Gender Stereotypes: • Oversimplified beliefs about gender traits (e.g., women as nurturing or men as strong). • These stereotypes change over time (e.g., the post-WWII push for women to leave jobs for men). Gender Inequality: • Stratification where one gender is prioritized over others (e.g., patriarchal systems favoring men). • Guerrilla Girls: Activist group calling out sexism in the art world. Gender identity : One’s innate, personal sense of gender • Cisgender: a person whose gender idenIty matches with the sex they were assigned at birth. • Transgender: broad term for people whose gender identity or expression is different from those typically associated with their sex assigned at birth. Nonbinary and Suprabinary Genders: • Nonbinary: Identifies outside the male/female binary. • Two-Spirit: Indigenous term recognizing both masculine and feminine traits in one individual. • Matriarchy: • Patriarchy: Systems in which power and authority are primarily held by men Religion and Cults Love Has Won • A New Age movement combining Christian eschatology and conspiracy theories. • Characteristics: ○ Heavy use of social media to spread beliefs and sell "healing" products. ○ Small, isolated group living communally. Is Love Has Won a Cult? • Cult derives from the Latin cultus, meaning devotion to a deity. • Modern negative connotations of "cult" (violence, brainwashing) are relatively recent. • Indicators of a Cult: 1. Isolation and restricted movement. 2. Charismatic leadership demanding excessive loyalty. Is Love Has Won a Cult? • Cult derives from the Latin cultus, meaning devotion to a deity. • Modern negative connotations of "cult" (violence, brainwashing) are relatively recent. • Indicators of a Cult: 1. Isolation and restricted movement. 2. Charismatic leadership demanding excessive loyalty. 3. Strict behavioral controls. Charismatic Authority • Based on the personal appeal of a leader. • Often perceived as supernatural or extraordinary. • Must transition to traditional or bureaucratic forms of authority upon the leader's death. Cult vs. Religion • The distinction is often political or cultural. • Established religions can start as "cults" before gaining legitimacy over time. Religion Definition: • A symbolic system socially enacted through rituals addressing ultimate existential questions. • Includes: 1. A belief in higher powers. 2. Shared practices and symbols. 3. Mechanisms of social cohesion and control. Historical Context: • The Protestant Reformation broadened the term "religion" to encompass various belief systems in 16th-17th century Europe. What Religion Does: 1. Provides explanations for events. 2. Justifies decisions and behaviors. 3. Mobilizes emotions and creates social cohesion. 4. Establishes moral and social orders. Typologies of Religion 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Animism: Belief in spiritual forces inhabiting inanimate objects (e.g., trees, rivers). Totemism: Associating specific animals/plants with social groups for cohesion. Polytheism: Worship of multiple gods, often tied to natural elements. Monotheism: Belief in a single, all-powerful deity. Magic: Actions or rituals believed to influence events supernaturally (e.g., spells, incantations). Rituals Definition: 4. Monotheism: Belief in a single, all-powerful deity. 5. Magic: Actions or rituals believed to influence events supernaturally (e.g., spells, incantations). Rituals Definition: • Stylized performances involving symbols linked to social, political, or religious activities. • Can be individual or group-based. Functions: 1. Signals shared beliefs or moral orders. 2. Builds community and solidarity (communitas). 3. Teaches and reinforces values. Nonreligious Rituals: • Routine events that foster unity, e.g., presidential inaugurations. Example: Panathenaic Procession • A multi-day festival in Athens honoring Athena through rituals, sacrifices, and communal participation. Rites of Passage 1. Separation: ○ Individual withdraws from the current social group or status. ○ Highly symbolic and emotionally charged. 2. Liminality: ○ Transition phase where individuals are "in-between" identities. ○ Often a period of learning and transformation. 3. Incorporation: ○ Reentry into society with a new role or identity. ○ Includes sharing new knowledge or experiences with the community. Example: Rumspringa • Amish youths temporarily explore life outside their community. ○ Separation: Relaxation of restrictions at age 16. ○ Liminality: Experimentation with non-Amish lifestyles. ○ Incorporation: Most choose to return and be baptized into the church. Archaeological Evidence of Ritual 1. Flower Burial: ○ Neanderthal burial site with pollen suggesting flower placement. ○ Highlights imagination and symbolic associations between death and flowers. 2. Eleusinian Mysteries: ○ Secret rituals in ancient Greece tied to Demeter and Persephone. ○ Themes: fertility, death, rebirth, and the afterlife. 3. Maya Ritual Bloodletting: ○ Neanderthal burial site with pollen suggesting flower placement. ○ Highlights imagination and symbolic associations between death and flowers. 2. Eleusinian Mysteries: ○ Secret rituals in ancient Greece tied to Demeter and Persephone. ○ Themes: fertility, death, rebirth, and the afterlife. 3. Maya Ritual Bloodletting: ○ Blood offerings as a form of reciprocity with gods. ○ Associated with commitment and supernatural sustenance. Key Anthropological Concepts 1. Imagination: Creativity and symbolism emerge in rituals and religion. 2. Meaning-Making: Objects and actions are imbued with collective significance. 3. Belief: Shared ideas become reality for individuals and groups. Kinship Charts Kinship charts visually represent family relationships, using symbols to denote gender, relationships, and marital status: • Circle: Represents females. • Triangle: Represents males. • Square: Represents a person of unspecified gender or a nonbinary individual. • Equal Sign (=): Denotes marriage. • Slash through Equal Sign (≠): Indicates divorce. • Vertical Line: Indicates descent (parent to child). • Horizontal Line: Indicates siblings. Consanguineal vs. Affinal Relatives • Consanguineal: Related by blood (e.g., parents, siblings, children). • Affinal: Related by marriage (e.g., in-laws, step-relatives). Key Kinship Terms 1. Ego: The reference point or individual whose family relationships are being traced on the chart. 2. Nuclear Family: A domestic group consisting of parents and their children (two generations). 3. Extended Family: A larger family group beyond the nuclear family, often spanning three or more generations. 4. Natal Family: The family into which an individual is born. 5. Family of Procreation: The family established when an individual marries and has children. 6. Patrilineal: Descent traced through the male line. 7. Matrilineal: Descent traced through the female line. 5. Family of Procreation: The family established when an individual marries and has children. 6. Patrilineal: Descent traced through the male line. 7. Matrilineal: Descent traced through the female line. Kinship Terminology Systems 1. Bifurcate Merging Kinship Terminology: ○ Groups relatives based on the same-sex parent (e.g., your father's brother is "father," while your mother's brother is "uncle"). ○ Distinguishes between maternal and paternal sides. 2. Generational Kinship Terminology: ○ Groups all relatives of the same generation under a single term (e.g., all women of your parents' generation are "mother"). Descent Systems 1. Lineage and Demonstrated Descent: ○ Lineage: A group of people directly descended from a known ancestor. ○ Demonstrated Descent: Members can trace their genealogy back to a known ancestor. 2. Clan and Stipulated Descent: ○ Clan: A larger group claiming descent from a common ancestor without necessarily tracing exact genealogical links. ○ Stipulated Descent: The assumption of shared ancestry, even if specific links are unclear. Chosen Family • Chosen Family: Non-biological relationships that function as family, often based on choice rather than blood or marriage. • Significance: Highlights how kinship is culturally constructed and how love/choice can redefine "family." What Marriage Does 1. 2. 3. 4. Establishes legal parentage. Grants spousal rights over property, labor, sexuality, etc. Creates alliances between families. Provides social significance to the relationship. Marriage Practices 1. Exogamy: Marrying outside one's social group, forming new alliances. ○ E.g., marriages that avoid incest by marrying outside close relatives. 2. Endogamy: Marrying within one's social group to maintain alliances and heritage. Royal Endogamy: Marrying within royal families to preserve power (e.g., Marriage Practices 1. Exogamy: Marrying outside one's social group, forming new alliances. ○ E.g., marriages that avoid incest by marrying outside close relatives. 2. Endogamy: Marrying within one's social group to maintain alliances and heritage. ○ Royal Endogamy: Marrying within royal families to preserve power (e.g., Claudius and Agrippina). 3. Bridewealth (Lobola): Gifts given to the bride’s family by the groom’s family. 4. Dowry: Wealth given by the bride’s family to the groom’s family. Cultural Marital Practices 1. Sororate: A widower marries the sister of his deceased wife. 2. Levirate: A widow marries the brother of her deceased husband. Plural Marriages (Polygamy) 1. Polygyny: One man married to multiple women. ○ Common in many societies. 2. Polyandry: One woman married to multiple men. ○ Rare, practiced in specific contexts (e.g., to prevent land fragmentation). 3. Serial Monogamy: Consecutive marriages after death or divorce, common in many societies. The Local and the Global • Transnational: Relationships extending beyond nation-states without necessarily being global. • Globalization: Expanding cross-cultural interactions via rapid movement of money, goods, people, ideas, and images across boundaries. Key Takeaways: • Anthropology explores not just isolated cultural entities but their connections. • The idea of a fully isolated society is a myth—cultures are interconnected. Movement of People 1. 2. 3. 4. Migration: Temporary relocation for work or living in another region. Immigration: Permanent relocation to another country. Refugees: Migration due to war or oppression, often legally sanctioned. Exiles: Expelled individuals from their home countries. World System Theory • Definition: Capitalism expands globally through unequal exchange, creating a system with dominant cores and dependent peripheries. • This system likely emerged in the late 15th century with colonial expansion. World System Theory • Definition: Capitalism expands globally through unequal exchange, creating a system with dominant cores and dependent peripheries. • This system likely emerged in the late 15th century with colonial expansion. Key Components: 1. Core: ○ Advanced production systems. ○ Dominates profitable global activities and controls capital. 2. Semiperiphery: ○ Intermediate role, producing/exporting industrial goods with limited power. 3. Periphery: ○ Supplies raw materials and labor to the core. ○ Least privileged economic and structural position. Inequality and the World System • Extreme wealth disparities persist even in core nations. • Environmental racism and classism exacerbate inequality (e.g., Flint Water Crisis). • International trade networks intensify these disparities, benefiting core nations at the expense of peripheries. Colonialism • Definition: Prolonged domination of a territory and its people by a foreign power for economic, political, and cultural exploitation. Characteristics: 1. Resource Extraction: Exporting raw materials for industrial benefits elsewhere. 2. Justifications: ○ Early focus on religious conversion (Christianity). ○ Shifted to pseudoscientific racism (e.g., Social Darwinism) to justify domination. 3. Tools of Empire: ○ Military and administrative staff. ○ Infrastructure (railroads, steamships). ○ Medical technology (e.g., quinine). ○ Exploitation of colonized labor. Example: The British Empire: • Reached its peak in 1914, controlling a significant portion of global land and population. • Employed the tools above to extract resources and wealth from colonies. Case Study: The Kingdom of Benin • Located in modern-day Nigeria, originating around 1200 CE. • Known for its brass bas-relief sculptures. • Became part of British Nigeria through violent conquest in 1897. Case Study: The Kingdom of Benin • Located in modern-day Nigeria, originating around 1200 CE. • Known for its brass bas-relief sculptures. • Became part of British Nigeria through violent conquest in 1897. The Benin Bronzes: • Significant artifacts looted by British forces during the raid of Benin. • Controversy surrounds their presence in European museums, like the British Museum. British Museum Act of 1963: • Restricts the museum’s ability to dispose of items unless deemed duplicates, unsuitable for study, or post-1850 artifacts. • Highlights how colonial artifacts remain tied to systems of global inequality. Social Darwinism • A pseudoscientific justification for colonial domination, claiming certain societies are inherently superior. • Promoted ethnocentrism and reinforced racist ideologies to maintain control over colonized peoples. Extractive Economies • Colonizers extracted raw materials for processing and profit in the core. • Infrastructure, such as railroads and ports, was developed to expedite extraction, not benefit the colonized. • Leopold II and the extraction of rubber from the “Congo Free State” (understanding of what happened in that case). ○ Colonialism is not only extractive but also, as in the case of Leopold II’s ”Congo Free State,” can involve intense disruption of lives and livelihoods, horrific violence, and even genocide. ○ This violence and outside intervention can endure even after a country is no longer under direct colonial domination. So can the legacy of large scale extraction. • Postcolonialism: “The field that studies the cultural legacies of colonialism and imperialism.” • What were the 2 ways I defined decolonization? 1. The “end” of the colonial period of European nations in the 20th century and its aftermath. 2. The conceptual reworking of institutions (like academia) with an eye toward contesting colonialism and imperialism. • Audre Lorde’s “tools” argument 1. The “end” of the colonial period of European nations in the 20th century and its aftermath. 2. The conceptual reworking of institutions (like academia) with an eye toward contesting colonialism and imperialism. • Audre Lorde’s “tools” argument “Our challenge is to fashion new tools for the purpose of decolonizing and Indigenous tools that can revitalize Indigenous knowledge. • Linda Tuhiwai Smith’s definition of and framing of decolonization (Smith chapter, slides, lecture) Decolonization is a process which engages with imperialism and colonialism at multiple levels. For researchers, one of those levels is concerned with having a more critical understanding of the underlying assumptions, motivations and values which inform research practices • What does it mean to decolonize an academic discipline? ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Acknowledge and address colonial histories. Refute systems of producing knowledge that produce inequality. Rethinking methodologies. Rethinking how we teach. Reckoning with how we understand our goals and procedures. Embracing collaboration. • How decolonization can be applied to anthropological methods (lecture and slides). ○ Subordinating our own research goals to those of our interlocutors. § De-centering the researcher. ○ Accepting interlocutors’ methods and theories. § Giving emic data and lived experience the respect it deserves. ○ Learning from, rather than learning about. § A focus on mutuality. ○ Not keeping a tight hold on our disciplinary “tools” and working with interlocutors. § A focus on collaboration.
