Understanding the Philosophical Self: A
Student Handout
I. Plato's Concept of the Self
The Tripartite Soul: Plato believes the self is composed of three parts:
1. Reason: The rational part that seeks truth and governs the soul.
2. Spirit: The part that expresses emotions and aspirations for honor.
3. Appetite: The part that craves physical pleasures and material desires.
The Chariot Allegory: Plato compares the soul to a chariot pulled by two horses (Spirit and
Appetite), with Reason as the charioteer who must control the horses for harmony.
The True Self: The soul is immortal and distinct from the body. It gains knowledge not
through the senses, but through recollection of eternal forms or truths.
II. Socrates' View on the Self
"Know Thyself": Socrates emphasizes self-knowledge and reflection. He famously stated,
"The unexamined life is not worth living," suggesting that understanding the self is key to
living a virtuous life.
Virtue and Knowledge: Socrates believed that knowing oneself leads to virtue, and that
knowledge is the highest good a person can attain.
The Importance of Dialogue: Socratic method (dialectic questioning) is central to examining
beliefs and achieving deeper understanding of the self.
III. St. Augustine's View of the Self
The Self’s Union with God: St. Augustine taught that the human soul is created by God and
yearns for reunion with Him. The self finds its highest purpose in God.
The Inner Journey: Augustine emphasized that true knowledge comes from turning inward
and discovering the divine truth that illuminates the soul.
Struggle with Sin: Augustine saw the self as torn between the spiritual and the material,
with sin resulting from focusing on material pleasures rather than on God.
IV. Descartes' View of the Self
Radical Doubt and "Cogito, ergo sum": Descartes famously doubted everything that could be
questioned, but realized that the act of doubting itself proved his existence. His conclusion:
"I think, therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum).
The Thinking Self: Descartes argued that the self is a thinking thing (res cogitans),
fundamentally distinct from the body (res extensa). The mind (or soul) is the true essence
of the self.
Method of Systematic Doubt: Descartes used skepticism and doubt to strip away beliefs
based on unreliable sensory experiences, leading to certainty in the existence of the self as a
thinking entity.
V. Immanuel Kant's View of the Self
Phenomena vs. Noumena: Kant distinguished between:
Phenomena: What we can experience through our senses and reason.
Noumena: Things as they are in themselves, which we cannot fully know.
The Transcendental Self: Kant argued that we can never fully know the self in itself
(noumenal self), but we experience the self as it appears to us (phenomenal self). The self
synthesizes experiences through the 'unity of apperception'—the mind's ability to unify and
organize perceptions.
Moral Self and the Categorical Imperative: Kant believed that moral actions stem from duty
and the categorical imperative, a universal moral law based on reason.
VI. St. Thomas Aquinas' View of the Self
The Soul as the Form of the Body: For Aquinas, the human self is a composite of body and
soul. The soul is the form that gives life and rationality to the body, which functions as the
matter.
Rational Soul: Aquinas emphasized that the human soul is rational and immortal, created by
God. It is responsible for intellectual and moral capacities.
Unity of Body and Soul: Unlike Descartes, Aquinas did not see the soul as separate from the
body. Instead, the soul and body are integrated, with the soul governing the body’s
functions.
Summary Table: Key Philosophers and Their Views on the Self
Philosopher
Plato
Key Concepts
Tripartite soul: Reason,
Spirit, Appetite
Socrates
Self-knowledge is the key to
virtue; 'The unexamined life
is not worth living.'
The self seeks union with
God; true knowledge comes
from within.
'I think, therefore I am';
radical doubt and the
thinking self.
St. Augustine
Descartes
Immanuel Kant
St. Thomas Aquinas
Phenomena vs. noumena;
the self organizes
experiences through
apperception.
The soul is the form of the
body, responsible for
rationality and life.
View of the Self
The true self is the rational
soul, which is distinct from
the body.
The self is known through
reflection and dialogue,
leading to a virtuous life.
The self is spiritual and
finds fulfillment in God.
The self is a thinking,
immaterial substance
(mind), distinct from the
body.
The self is the subject of
experience and morality,
but its true nature cannot
be fully known.
The self is a unity of body
and soul, with the rational
soul as its essence.
Key Terms to Remember
Reason (Plato): The rational part of the soul that should govern the self.
Apperception (Kant): The mind's ability to unify experiences.
Cogito, ergo sum (Descartes): 'I think, therefore I am,' the foundation of selfknowledge.
Tripartite Soul (Plato): The division of the soul into reason, spirit, and appetite.
Categorical Imperative (Kant): A universal moral law based on reason.
Form (Aquinas): The principle that organizes and gives life to matter (the body).