Introduction to Research
Methods of Knowledge Acquisition
There are two primary methods of knowledge
acquisition:
A. Authority – Knowledge based on authority
is provided based on the reputation of an
individual.
B. Rationalism – The use of reasoning, alone,
to arrive at an ascertained form of
knowledge.
C. Intuition – Acquiring knowledge through a
sudden insight, the clarifying idea that
springs through consciousness all at once as
a whole.
D. Scientific Method – Makes use of both
reasoning and intuition for establishing
truth. It relies on objective assessment.
For example: All statistics professors are incredible
people.
➢ Ms. D is a statistics professor.
➢ Therefore, Ms. D is an incredible
person.
The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a process that entails the
following procedure:
1. Ask a Question
➢ Find a particular problem that you
are interested in.
2. Do Background Research
➢ Related literature regarding the
problem that you would like to
tackle is important to be
knowledgeable about the issue.
3. Construct a Hypothesis
➢ An “educated guess” that is backed
by your background research.
4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an
Experiment
➢ It is not enough to rationalize one’s
hypothesis. Thus, research entails
the collection data to support one’s
hypothesis through
experimentation.
5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion
➢ Once your data has been analyzed,
conclude the results of your study in
line with your hypothesis.
6. Communicate Your Results
➢ Through language, your research can
be communicated in the form of
scientific papers—appropriately
employing scientific writing
principles.
The Research Process
The research entails the following:
A. Data – Make an Initial Observation
(Research Question)
a. Generate Theories
B. Identify Variables – Generate a Hypothesis
C. Measure Variables – Collect Data to Test
Theory
D. Graph Data/Fit a Model – Analyze the
Collected Data
Definition of Terms in Research
The following terms are important to note in
conducting research universally:
➢ Population – This is the complete set of
individuals, objects, or scores, that the
investigator is interested in studying.
➢ Sample – A subset of the population.
➢ Variable – Any property or characteristic of
some event, object, or person that may
have different values at different times—
depending on the set conditions.
❖ Variables are any things that are
measured on a multitude of
standards.
➢ Independent Variable (IV) – The
independent variable in an experiment is
the variable that is systematically
manipulated by the investigator/researcher.
➢ Dependent Variable (DV) – The dependent
variable in an experiment is the variable
that the investigator measures to determine
the effect of the independent variable.
➢ Data – The data are the measurements that
are made on the subjects of an experiment.
➢ Statistic – A statistic is a number calculated
on sample data that quantifies a
characteristic of a sample.
➢ Parameter – The parameter is a number
calculated on population data that
quantifies a characteristic of the entire
population.
Sample and Populations
Sampling Methods
Consider Sample 1:
The following sampling methods are often
employed in research:
A. Research Problem to be Investigated: The
effects of computer-assisted instruction on
the reading achievement of the first- and
second-graders in California
B. Target Population: All first- and secondgrade children in California.
C. Accessible Population: All first- and secondgrade children in the Laguna Salada
elementary school district of Pacifica,
California.
D. Sample: Ten percent (10%) of the first- and
second-grade children in the Laguna Salada
district in Pacifica, California
Consider Sample 2:
A. Research Problem to be Investigated: The
attitudes of fifth-year teachers-in-training
toward their student teaching experience.
B. Target Population: All fifth-year students
enrolled in teacher-training programs in the
United States.
C. Target Population: All fifth-year students
enrolled in teacher-training programs in the
State University of New York.
D. Sample: Two hundred (200) fifth-year
students enrolled in teacher-training
programs in the State University of New
York.
Exercise Problem
A social psychologist is interested in determining
whether individuals who graduate from high school
but get no further education earn more money
than high school dropouts. A national survey is
conducted in a large midwestern city, sampling 100
individuals from each category and asking each
their annual salary. The results are tabulated, and
mean salary values are calculated for each group.
A. Variables
a. Independent Variable – High School
Degree
b. Dependent Variable – Annual Income
B. Sampling
a. Population – High School Students in a
Large Midwestern City
b. Sample – 100 Individuals from Each
Category (Degree-Having and Dropout)
C. Statistic
a. Data – Annual Salary Values
b. Statistic – Mean Annual Salary Values
A. Random Sampling – Every single individual
in the entire target population has an equal
chance of being selected.
➢ It is incredibly important that in
performing random sampling, the
researcher must acquire every
possible form of data from the
population.
a) Stratified Sampling - The
researcher identifies the
different types of people that
make up the target population
and works out the
proportions needed for the
sample to be representative of
the said population—also
known as strata.
b) Cluster Sampling – The
researcher groups the
population into clusters and
randomly selects from each
cluster.
c) Systematic Sampling – The
researchers choose subjects in
a systematic manner from the
target population. This can
manifest in the form of picking
every nth participant on a list
of names.
d) Two-Stage Sampling – A form
of sampling in which
researchers perform sampling
in 2 stages: (1) Random
samples of clusters are
formed; (2) Individuals from
the sample clusters are
randomly picked as the final
representatives of the
population.
B. Opportunity Sampling – It uses people from
target population available at the time and
willing to take part.
➢ It is based on convenience, and it is
also known as Convenience Sampling.
➢ It is a form of non-probability
sampling.
C. Purposive Sampling – A purposive sample is
a non-probability sample that is selected
based on characteristics of a population and
the objective of the study.
➢ Purposive sampling is also known as
Judgmental, Selective, or Subjective
Sampling.