ENG 322 – Teaching and Assessment of Literature
Studies
Overview on the Nature of Literature and its
Genres
Literature as Significant Human Experience and its
purpose (Ahmed, 2017)
Literature comes from a Latin word ‘Littera’ and ‘literatura’
originally
"writing
formed
with
letters,"
from litera/littera "alphabetic letter" also "an
epistle, writing, document; literature, great books;
science, learning“
Latin literatura / litteratura "learning, a writing,
grammar,"
Any work of art in which the emotional content
predominates is called literature
Many mixed forms of literature exist in it.
Literature serves as: reflection of reality; a product of art;
and window to an ideology.
Life is manifested in the form of literature
● Literature enables the people to see through the
lens of others. It is a gateway to teach the reader
about life experiences.
● Use to teach morals and encourage to practice
good judgment. Proven in the public school
systems
● Teaches us how to live
Literature reflects society
If it assumes that literature at any given time, mirrors
the current social situation “correctly,” it is false; it is
commonplace, trite, and vague if it means only that
literature depicts some aspects of social reality
● in the ancient times, it is used to pass down
customs, traditions, beliefs, and feelings to the
younger generation eg the great epics of Homer:
The Iliad and Odyssey; The Aeneid by Virgil
● In most recent years, it takes more
comprehensive role of mirroring society in order
for human to study themselves and understand
the underlying truths common of all people.
● For students, studying literature is critical
component in education, as it teaches students to
see themselves reflected in art.
● Identity based literature teaches the readers
what life is like for others, helping them to be
more understanding and respectful of those
around them.
Literature becomes a tool for religion explains human
values
● Literature explains human values : the holy bibly
for christians, quaran for muslims, bhagad gita,
ramayana and vedas for the hindus, torah for the
jews. Works of socrates, plato and Aristotle
Literature is an instrument of revolution; rekindles
new ideas.
Literature in the present generation still exists as
an expression of art, a source of knowledge, and an
instrument of entertainment.
● Political turmoil, societal injustice and genocidal
conquest
● Serves as social document, as assumed pictures
of social reality
● Thomas Warton, the first real historian of English
poetry, argued that literature has the “peculiar
merit of faithfully recording the features of the
times, and of preserving the most picturesque
and expressive representation of manners”
Literature has a deep and direct link with human
life and its realities.
A creative literature grows out of the real
situations and events of life and life without a creative and
constructive literature, has no inner significance.
● After satisfying the need, man follows the lead of
curiosity and explores the mysteries of life.
● The passion for knowledge, the desire to
understand life and make oneself at home in the
universe has perennial spring in human nature.
Literature allows us to transmit the profound
meaning of a determinate culture
its stereotypes, archetypes and collective in
conscience, creating the possibility of social change
through a critic that is able to act into the subliminal world
of emotions.
● Furthermore, literature offers a different form of
learning rather than just providing information; it
requires us to experience, to participate. Works
of literature are not just about human issues; the
power of literature is that it makes issues come
alive for the reader.
● If the heart of literature is its exploration of
human experience, consideration of the formal
and aesthetic properties of a work of literature
must be secondary to consider of the social
values and ethical dilemmas presented by the
work.
● In like fashion, our student wants to use literature
to think about the world, not just to think about
the formal aspects of literature.
Literature reflects the various experiences, ideas,
passions of human beings in their daily life that
express on several forms and styles of literary
works
Two functions of literature:
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Power – to move the heart and mind of
the readers.
Knowledge – function to teach
Literature contributes to the education program
using literature in language teaching in terms of
linguistic, cultural, and personal growth
● The contribution of literature in education covers
intrinsic values and extrinsic values. The intrinsic
values are the reward of a lifetime of wide
reading recognizable in truly literate person while
the intrinsic values facilitatethe development of
language skills and knowledge.
● As social document, chaucer (canterbury tales)
social types ( history)
● Language teaching such as poems, song lyric and
short stories.
● Linguistically, literary texts offer a range of
genuine texts in a variety of registers, styles and
text-types at many level of difficulty.
● Literary texts provide a very real sense the
vehicle for culture. The literature can put
obviously be put in different terms, those of
symbolic or meaningful relations: of consistency,
harmony, coherence, congruence, structural
identity, stylistic analogy, or with whatever term
we want to designate the integration of culture
and interrelationship among the different
activities of men.
● Sorokin, who has analyzed the various
possibilities clearly, has concluded that the
degree of integration varies from society to
society.
The study and practice of literature is cumulative,
building a culture’s identity over time.
Why Study Literature (Huntress, 2006)
A particular literary piece must possess these seven
literary standards in order to be called a peerless
epitome of artwork capable of enduring the inexorable
gusty tides of alteration. To criticize it is to consider the
seven literary standards. Be critical. Ask yourself once in
a while.
To benefit from the insight of others. Why would
anyone bury important ideas?
● Knowledge about humanity – our beliefs, our selfperception, our assumptions, and our interactions
with the world at large.
To open our minds to ambiguities of meaning.
Language is our world is, in reality, maddeningly and
delightfully ambiguous.
● Ambiguity, double entendres and nuance give our
language depth and endless possibility.
To explore other cultures and beliefs
●
History, anthropology and religious studies
provide method of learning. However, literature
allows you to experience the cultures and beliefs
of others first-hand, from the inside looking out.
To appreciate why individuals are the way they are
With each exposure to those who differ from us, we
expand our minds.
● Appreciation did not mean acceptance, but
understanding.
● Each person we meet represents a unique
concoction
of
knowledge,
beliefs,
and
experiences.
To expand our grasp of the machinations of history
History and literature are inextricably intertwined.
● Study of literature enhances our appreciation of
history’s complexities.
To exercise our brains
Great literature has great hidden meanings.
To teach us to see individual bias
The only thing that suffers when we appreciate individual
bias is our own gullibility.
To encourage us to question “accepted”
knowledge
The more ideas we expose yourself to, the more of our
own assumptions we can root out to question and either
discard or ground our lives in.
To help us see ourselves as others do
Literature is a tool of self-examination
To appreciate the contributions literature has
made to history
To see the tragedy
History shows statistics; literature shows human tragedy.
To further our mastery of language
Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words build
and destroy nations.
To recognize language devices and appreciate
their emotional power
To explore ethical complexities
Literature forces readers to challenge their simplistic
ethical conceptions and sometimes their outright
condemnation of other’s actions
To see the admirable in everyday life
We are surrounded by unsung nobility and sacrifice.
To learn better ways to behave
Literature teaches us better courses of actions and more
effective responses to situations
To know we are not alone
We are unique, but we are not alone.
To refine judgment
Exposure to new ideas and news ways of looking at old
assumptions, expanded vocabulary, and understanding,
and improved ability to write.
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To expand our vocabularies
New words are tools for new ideas…
To improve our writing skills
Learning means to improve…
Suggestiveness
It unravels and conjures man’s emotional power to
define symbolism, nuances, implied meanings, images
and message, giving and evoking visions above and
beyond the plane of ordinary life and experiences.
● A suggestive piece of literature relies on
emotional power to convey nuances, symbolism,
implied meanings, imagery and messages. The
To learn to use our language well
Literature presents at infinite variety of ideas, words, and
expressions.
To improve reading comprehension
Reading is a continuous activity…
Literary Standards (Long, 1909)
A particular literary piece must possess these seven
literary standards in order to be called a peerless
epitome of artwork capable of enduring the inexorable
gusty tides of alteration. To criticize it is to consider the
seven literary standards. Be critical. Ask yourself once in
a while.
Universality
It appeals to everyone regardless of culture, race,
sex, and time which are considered significant.
● Universality describes a piece of writing that
appeals to the hearts and minds of almost any
reader. The appeal is considered universal due to
its ability to cross gender, racial and cultural
barriers, regardless of the time it’s written.
Artistry
It has an aesthetic appeal to everyone and thus
possesses a sense of beauty.
● Artistry
describes literature that is
aesthetically appealing and reveals or conveys
hidden truth and beauty. This type of literature
appeals to broad audiences and possesses a
sense of beauty in the writing that could even feel
poetic
Intellectual Value
gray area as they may have different
opinions
about
what
qualifies
as
intellectual, but from an academic point of
view, intellectual works are relevant to society
and thought provoking. Literature with
intellectual value promotes critical thinking that
enhances both abstract and reason-based
thought processes and makes readers focus on
the fundamental truths of life and nature.
To learn to support our points of view and trust our
own interpretations
EVIDENCE…
To develop empathy for those who are unlike us
Our study of literature continues to expand that realm of
concern beyond the things we physically experience.
It stimulates critical thinking that enriches
the mental processes of abstract and reasoning,
making man realizes the fundamental truths of
life and its nature.
Intellectual value takes readers into a bit of a
power of suggestion allows the work to inspire
and provoke thoughts and understanding beyond
the actual words written on the page.
Spiritual Value
It elevates the spirit and the soul and thus have the
power to motivate and inspire, drawn from the suggested
morals or lessons of the different literary genres.
● Literature with spiritual value lifts up the inner
spirit and soul and has the power to motivate and
inspire readers. It typically draws on the
suggested lessons and moral codes of society
that are depicted in various literary genres.
Permanence
It endures across time and draws out the time
factor: TIMELINESS, occurring at a particular time,
and TIMELESSNESS, remaining invariably throughout
time.
● Permanence is determined by a written
work’s ability to stand the test of time,
which makes it impossible to determine at the
moment of writing. Novels that continue to be
read over and over again across decades, either
for enjoyment or for fresh insights and ideas,
meet this criteria. Many novels enjoy initial
popularity but ultimately fade into obscurity with
time, failing the permanence test.
Style
the distinct way the author expresses his or her
thoughts.
● It presents peculiar ways on how man sees life as
evidenced by the formation of his ideas, forms,
structures, and expressions which are marked by
their memorable substance.
Literary Genres
Poetry
• Songs and Ballads
• Lyric
• Narrative
• Dramatic
• Epic
Drama
• Tragedy
• Musical
• Comedy
• Melodrama
• History
Prose
Fiction
Novels
Novella
Fables and Parables
Myths and Legends
Short Story
Non-Fiction
Autobiography
Biography
Narrative Fiction
Diaries and Journals
Essay
Genres under Emergent Literature
1. Creative Non-Fiction
uses literary styles and techniques to
convey factually accurate narratives.
• Hyper Poetry
• Chick Lit
• Illustrated Novel
• Graphic Novel
• Text-talk Novels
What is Creative Nonfiction by Lee Gutkind
“What is creative nonfiction?” Or, in some cases,
“what the hell is creative nonfiction?” The answer—or
answers—can be complicated because creative
nonfiction may mean different things to different people,
a characteristic that makes this form so elusive and
alluring.
On its very baseline creative nonfiction is a
literary genre. Some people call it the fourth genre,
along with poetry, fiction and drama. And it’s an
umbrella term for the many different ways one can write
what is called creative nonfiction. Memoir, for example,
personal essay, biography, narrative history and long
form narrative reportage may all fit under the creative
nonfiction umbrella. Recently, as the genre has evolved,
there have been offshoots to the genre like speculative
nonfiction, auto(biographical) fiction, lyric essay, and the
visual essay, to name only a few.
“Freedom” and “flexibility” are words I like to
use when defining creative nonfiction, for the genre
invites writers to push boundaries and open doors,
offering them the opportunity to use all of the
techniques of the fiction writer (or the poet)—dialogue,
setting, description, inner point of view (seeing the
world through the eyes of the person about whom they
are writing)—in order to capture a reader’s attention and
enlighten and intrigue them through nonfiction.
The addition of the word “creative” to nonfiction
was at first controversial, but it gradually reversed the
belief that nonfiction was somehow second class, a cut
below poetry and fiction. It liberated all writers,
journalists especially, releasing them from longstanding
rules and boundaries that had been so restrictive and
inhibiting. For novelists, poets and essayists, “creative”
encouraged experimentation and offered new avenues
of expression. Scientists, physicians, engineers (Atul
Gawande, Hope Jahren, Siddhartha Mukherjee, Henry
Petroski, to name just a very few) were intrigued by the
notion of being creative and began to write true stories
that humanized and revealed the behind-the-scenes
intimacies of their professions.
The interest in true stories motivated and
opened doors for others who were not writers by trade
to share their life experiences, finding meaning in the
process and fulfillment in the connections they forged
with readers.
This transition—an awakening to the potential
and power of nonfiction that allowed and encouraged
creativity—did not happen overnight and was not
without resistance and often bitter infighting. Change
was difficult for the literary, journalistic and academic
communities, steeped in tradition and long resistant to
new ideas, to accommodate. Indeed, the resistance in
some corners far exceeded the scale of the change
itself. The change was hardly drastic and was not really,
when one looks back over the history of nonfiction,
much of a change at all. Writers had been writing
nonfiction that was creative and imaginative for
centuries, familiar and famous names you will
recognize–Daniel Defoe, George Orwell, Charles Dickens
and many others—for centuries. The change, the
adjustment that it precipitated, had much more to do
with the approach or attitude toward nonfiction rather
than its content and, of course, the idea that creative
and nonfiction were not mutually exclusive. That change
in approach and attitude is ongoing. The scope of
nonfiction today, most especially what we call creative
nonfiction, continues to evolve, informing and inspiring
readers with stories that are true, compelling, revealing
and always surprising.
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Hyper Poetry
Digital poetry that uses links and
hypertext mark-up. It can be in different forms:
text, videos or multimedia.
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Chick Literature
Kodomo – Children manga
• Digi-Fiction
Combination of Three Media
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Illustrated Novel
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Graphic Novel
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Text-Talk Novel
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Manga
Shonen – Boy’s Manga
Shojo – Girl’s Manga
Seinen – Men’s Manga
Josei – Women’s Manga
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Doodle Fiction
Incorporation of doodle writings and
drawings and handwritten graphics in place of
traditional font
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Flash Fiction
Fictional writing with extreme brevity
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Six-word Flash Fiction
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Blog
"Pwera Usog" (2017); and
"100 Tula Para kay Stella“ (2017).
Manix Abrera
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Comics writer, author and musician
Arlene J. Chai
Survey of Contemporary Authors
Filipino Contemporary Writers
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Maria Felisa H. Batacan
Bob Ong
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enigmatic writer
known for his humorous style of writing
Ricky Lee
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screenwriter, journalist, novelist, and playwright.
Recipient
of
many
prestigious
awards
(Cinemanila International Film Festival, the
Gawad Urian, and the Philippine Movie Press
Club)
writer, novelist, liberal activist and political critic,
honest realism, and women’s issues
Miguel Syjuco
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writer from Manila and the grand prize winner of
the 2008 Man Asian Literary Prize, and 2008
Palanca Award for Literature for his first novel
‘Ilustrado’.
Eros Atalia
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Filipino author, professor (UST) and journalist
Joanne Kathlene Rowling
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"Babagwa" (2013);
"Mercury is Mine" (2016);
"Love is Blind" (2016);
"The Third Party" (2016),
Adult
Fiction,
Genre: Fantasy, Detective, Fiction, Mythology
Suzanne Collins
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American television writer and author. She is
known as the author of The New York Times bestselling series The Underland Chronicles and The
Hunger Games
George Raymond Richard Martin
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Writer and Director from Pampanga
"Astro Mayabang” (2010);
Novelists
AKA Robert Galbraith
Fantasy,
Drama,
Young
Tragicomedy, Crime Fiction
Robert Russel Riordan Jr.
John Paul Laxamana
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Journalist and a writer of crime and mystery
fiction.
Also known as F.H. Batacan.
International Authors
Lualhati Bautista
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Filipino – Chinese – Australian author.
also known as GRRM, is an American novelist and
short story writer, screenwriter, and television
producer.
K-12 Language Arts and Multiliteracies Curriculum
Philosophy and Rationale
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Language is the basis of all communication and
the primary instrument of thought.
Language is the foundation of all human
relationships.
Note: Thinking, learning, and language are interrelated.
Language is governed by rules and systems (language
conventions) which are used to explore and communicate
meaning. It defines culture which is essential in
understanding oneself (personal identity), forming
interpersonal relationships (socialization), extending
experiences, reflecting on thought and action, and
contributing to a better society. Language, therefore, is
central to the peoples’ intellectual, social and emotional
development and has an essential role in all key learning
areas.
All human relationships are established on the ability of
people to communicate effectively with each other. Our
thoughts, values and understandings are developed and
expressed through language. This process allows
students to understand better the world in which they live
and contributes to the development of their personal
perspectives of the global community. People use
language to make sense of and bring order to their world.
Therefore, proficiency in the language enables people to
access, process and keep abreast of information, to
engage with the wider and more diverse communities,
and to learn about the role of language in their own lives,
and in their own and other cultures.
Guiding Principles
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All
languages
are
interrelated
and
interdependent.
Language acquisition and learning is an active
process that begins at birth and continues
throughout life.
Note: The K-12 Language Arts and Multiliteracies
Curriculum is anchored on the following language
acquisition, learning, teaching and assessing principles
2. It is continuous and recursive throughout students’
lives. Students enhance their language abilities by using
what they know in new and more complex contexts and
with increasing sophistication (spiral progression). They
reflect on and use prior knowledge to extend and enhance
their language and understanding. By learning and
incorporating new language structures into their
repertoire and using them in a variety of contexts,
students develop language fluency and proficiency.
Positive
learning
experiences
in
language-rich
environments enable students to leave school with a
desire to continue to extend their knowledge, skills and
interests.
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Learning requires meaning.
Learners learn about language and how to use it
effectively through their engagement with and
study of texts.
Note: We learn when we use what we know to
understand what is new. Start with what the students
know; use that to introduce new concepts. They use
language to examine new experiences and knowledge in
relation to their prior knowledge, experiences, and beliefs.
They make connections, anticipate possibilities, reflect
upon ideas, and determine courses of action.
The term ‘text’ refers to any form of written
(reading and writing), oral (listening and speaking) and
visual communication involving language4 . The texts
through which students learn about language are wideranging and varied, from brief conversations to lengthy
and complex forms of writing. The study of specific texts
is the means by which learners achieve the desired
outcomes of language, rather than an end in itself.
Learners learn to create texts of their own and to engage
with texts produced by other people.
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Successful language learning involves viewing,
listening, speaking, reading and writing activities.
Note: Language learning should include a plethora of
strategies and activities that helps students focus on both
MEANING and ACCURACY.
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Language
learning
involves
recognizing,
accepting, valuing and building on students’
existing language competence, including the use
of non-standard forms of the language, and
extending the range of language available to
students.
Note: Through language learning, learners develop
functional and critical literacy skills. They learn to control
and understand the conventions of the target language
that are valued and rewarded by society and to reflect on
and critically analyze their own use of language and the
language of others.
An effective language arts and multiliteracies
curriculum satisfies the following principles:
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develops thinking and language through
interactive learning;
develops communicative competence and critical
literacy;
draws on literature in order to develop students’
understanding of their literary heritage;
draws on informational texts and multimedia in
order to build academic vocabulary and strong
content knowledge;
develops students’ oral language and literacy
through appropriately challenging learning;
emphasizes
writing
arguments,
explanatory/informative texts and narratives;
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provides explicit skill instruction in reading and
writing;
builds on the language, experiences, knowledge
and interests that students bring to school;
nurtures students’ sense of their common ground
in using language/s for communication as present
or future global citizens to prepare them to
participate in school and in civic life, and;
assesses and reflects the students’ ability to
interpret and/or communicate in the target
language.
Needs of the Learners: The Context
Who are the Generation Z?
Generation Z
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Born after the year 1997 onwards.
The first generation to be born with complete
technology
Social Media Platforms are a way to communicate
Note: digital natives and are extremely comfortable with
technology.
They are not bothered about privacy and are
willing to share intimate details about themselves with
complete strangers. They have virtual friends and for
them hanging out with friends means talking to them over
the cell phones, emails and text messages. However, at
the same time, this generation is considered to be
creative and collaborative and will have a significant
impact on the way companies work when they join the
workforce.
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Members of Generation Z are adept at multitasking.
Gen Z will grow up with a highly sophisticated
media and computer environment and will be
more Internet savvy and expert than their Gen Y
forerunners.
Outcomes
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Communicative Competence
Grammatical/Linguistic
Sociolinguistic
Discourse
Strategic
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Multiliteracies
Note: Communicative Competence is a synthesis of
knowledge of basic grammatical principles, knowledge of
how language is used in social settings to perform
communicative functions, and how knowledge of
utterances and communicative functions can be combined
according to the principles of discourse.8 Communicative
competence is classified into the following competencies.
1. Grammatical/Linguistic Competence means the
acquisition of phonological rules, morphological
words, syntactic rules, semantic rules and lexical
items.
2. Sociolinguistic Competence refers to the learning
of pragmatic aspect of various speech acts,
namely, the cultural values, norms, and other
sociocultural conventions in social contexts. They
are the context and topic of discourse, the
participant’s social status, sex, age, and other
factors which influence styles and registers of
speech. Since different situations call for different
types of expressions as well as different beliefs,
views, values, and attitudes, the development of
sociolinguistic competence is essential for
communicative social action.
3. Discourse Competence is the knowledge of rules
regarding the cohesion (grammatical links) and
coherence
(appropriate
combination
of
communicative actions) of various types of
discourse (oral and written). Sociolinguistic rules
of use and rules of discourse are crucial in
interpreting utterances for social meaning,
particularly when the literal meaning of an
utterance does not lead to the speaker’s intention
easily.
4. Strategic Competence is to DO with the
knowledge of verbal and non-verbal strategies to
compensate for breakdown such as selfcorrection and at the same time to enhance the
effectiveness of communication such as
recognizing discourse structure, activating
background knowledge, contextual guessing, and
tolerating ambiguity.
Multiliteracies (multi literacy practices) recognize that
there are many kinds of literacy at work within our
society. These include traditional literacy practices using
texts as well as new literacy practices using texts of
popular culture such as films. Social literacy encompasses
how we communicate and exchange meaning in our
society while professional literacy links with the notion of
literacy for school of the workplace. The curriculum aims
to help learners acquire highly-developed literacy skills
that enable them to understand that English language is
the most widely used medium of communication in Trade
and the Arts, Sciences, Mathematics, and in world
economy. Furthermore, the curriculum aims to help
learners understand that English language is a dynamic
social process which responds to and reflects changing
social conditions, and that English is inextricably involved
with values, beliefs and ways of thinking about ourselves
and the world we dwell in. Through multi-literacy skills,
learners will be able to appreciate and be sensitive to
sociocultural diversity and understand that the meaning
of any form of communication depends on context,
purpose and audience.
Conceptual Framework
Component 1: Language Learning Process
Component 2: Effective Language Use
Component 3: Making Meaning Through Language
Component 4: Holistic Assessment
Note: The world is now in the “Knowledge age” where
the challenge of education is to prepare learners to deal
with the challenges of the changing world. Students in
this age must be prepared to compete in a global
economy,
understand
and
operate
complex
communication and information systems, and apply
higher level thinking skills to make decisions and solve
problems. The Language Arts and Multiliteracies
Curriculum (LAMC) addresses these needs. This is the
rationale why Mother Tongue, Filipino and English follow
a unified framework which allows easy transition from
acquiring and learning one language to another. The
curriculum has five (5) components. Each component is
essential to the learners’ ability to communicate
effectively in a language leading them to achieve
communicative competence and multiliteracies in the
Mother Tongue, Filipino and English.
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Note: Learning language through text types and literary
appreciation exposes learners to different cultures of the
world, including one’s culture.
Learners apply their knowledge of the system of the
language to assist them to make meaning and to create
meaning.
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Illustrates learning processes that will effect
acquisition and learning of the language.
It explains the HOW of language learning and
therefore serves as guiding principles for
language teaching.
Spiral Progression
Interaction
Integration
Learner-Centeredness
Contextualization
Construction
Note: Making meaning is the heart of language learning
and use. Learning tasks and activities will be designed for
learners in such a way that they will have time to reflect
on and respond to ideas and information.
Component 2: Effective Language Use
They come to recognize the patterns and
rules of the language which emerge as
they interact with a plethora of texts
(literary and informational) to make
meaning.
Learners select from a repertoire of processes and
strategies by reflecting on their understanding of the way
language works for a variety of purposes in a range of
contexts.
o
They deliberate on how they use
language and apply different language
strategies, depending on their purpose,
context and audience.
Component 3: Making Meaning Through Language
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Language is the major instrument in
communication (oral and written) and the heart
of which is the exchange of meaning.
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Language learning should focus on guiding
students make meaning through language for
different purposes on a range of topics and with
a variety of audiences.
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Students must be able to adapt to various
situations where communication demands greatly
vary.
Component 1: Language Learning Process
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describes knowledge and skill areas which are
essential
to
effective
language
use
(understanding of cultures, understanding
language, processes and strategies) which will be
developed through language arts (macro-skills).
Understanding Cultures
Understanding Language
Process and Strategies
Component 4: Holistic Assessment
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Holistic assessment refers to the ongoing
gathering of information on different facets of a
child from various sources, with the aim of
providing qualitative and quantitative feedback to
support and guide the child's development
Characteristics of Assessment
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Proximity to actual language
performance
A holistic view of language
An integrative view of learning
Developmental appropriateness
Multiple referencing
1. Proximity to
performance
actual
language
use
and
use
and
Assessment procedures should be based on
activities that have authentic communicative function
rather than ones with little or no intrinsic communicative
value. These activities are based on actual performance
in authentic situations which the learner is likely to
encounter in his or her daily life.
Assessment entails obtaining information about
the learner from numerous sources and through various
means. For students, assessment should allow them to
see their own accomplishments in terms that they
understand and, consequently, allows them to assume
responsibility for their learning. Assessment should allow
parents to share in the educational process, and offers
them a clear insight into what their children are doing in
school. For teachers, the primary advantage of
assessment is that it provides data on their students and
their classroom for educational decision-making. In
addition, it reports the success of the curriculum and
provides teachers with a framework for organizing
student’s works.
2. A holistic view of language
Assessment procedures are based on the notion
that the interrelationships among the various aspects of
language, such as phonology, grammar, and vocabulary,
among others cannot be ignored. Also the four skills of
language-listening, speaking, reading, and writing-are
seen to be parts of a structurally integrated whole.
Assessment
approaches
should
be
used
for
communication and self-expression. Assessment also
takes into account the whole learner and his or her social,
academic, and physical context.
3. An integrative view of learning
Assessment attempts to capture the learner’s
total array of skills and abilities. It measures language
proficiency in the context of specific subject matter.
Assessment procedures are based on the idea that
various aspects of a learner’s life, both academic and
personal, are integral to the development of language
proficiency and cannot be ignored. These dimensions
include not only processes such as acquiring and
integrating
knowledge,
extending
and
refining
knowledge, and using knowledge meaningfully, but also
issues such as varying student attitudes towards learning.
4. Developmental appropriateness
Assessment procedures set expectations that are
appropriate within the cognitive, social, and academic
development of the learner. This characteristic of
assessment makes it particularly valuable for second
language learners who come from culturally diverse
backgrounds and who may have atypical educational
experiences.
5. Multiple referencing
CREATIVE WRITING
Defamiliarization: How Writers Turn Familiar
Objects into Something Strange and Wonderful
by Cole Salao
There seems to be a point where an object,
concept, or any kind of subject gains a conventional way
of how it is viewed, described, and understood. The sky
is blue, old people are wrinkled, and war is chaos.
But what if these things were suddenly presented
to you in a different way? This is called defamiliarization,
an artistic technique that writers have used to give fresh
experiences despite using the familiar and ordinary.
What is Defamiliarization?
Defamiliarization is a method where you portray
common objects in diverse and unexpected ways. It is
meant to break your readers away from their ingrained
and routinized perception of the world.
For example, the human perspective is the default point
of view in the majority of human literature. However,
many writers have also written perspectives from nonhuman characters to elevate their prose.
Imagine reading a passage like A tapestry hung
across the old oak’s boughs, dew glistening on its threads.
The patterns are cleverly woven, enticing victims to its
embrace.
You wouldn’t think of a spider’s web as a tapestry,
but the imagery makes sense despite being different from
the usual. Now the web isn’t just a web, but something
more.
By defamiliarizing the object, you can force your
audience into questioning their views of the world, giving
them a much more complex opinion and a greater
appreciation of the thing being defamiliarized.
The Purpose of Defamiliarization
Russian literary critic Viktor Shklovsky (who
coined the word defamiliarization), argues in his
essay, Art
as
Technique,
that
defamiliarization
is
ultimately the point of all art. Art destabilizes your
internalized perception of reality, leading you to question
it and, as a result, redefine it.
He argues that “Habitualization devours work,
clothes, furniture, one’s wife, and the fear of war. “If the
whole complex lives of many people go on unconsciously,
then such lives are as if they had never been.” And art
exists that one may recover the sensation of life; it exists
to make one feel things, to make the stone stony.”
linearly structured Hollywood plot, the movie is played
out in a fractured, nonlinear manner.
Not only does it challenge expectations on how
a movie is structured, but it also forces its audience to
think more deeply about each scene and dialogue.
3. Ulysses by James Joyce
This novel follows the events of a single day in
the life of three characters as they spend it in Dublin,
Ireland. Joyce utilizes a complex narrative structure,
parallels
with
Homer’s Odyssey,
stream-ofconsciousness writing, and linguistic experimentation
to defamiliarize not only the processes of writing and
reading but language itself.
4. l(a by E.E. Cummings
You are then responsible for bringing that sense of life
l(a is a poem composed of a single sentence, if
back to your reader. You render the world unfamiliar to
it can even be called that. It is arranged vertically in
groups of one to five letters, that when laid out
horizontally, read as l(a leaf falls)oneliness.
E.E. Cummings likes to play with syntax, punctuation,
and form in his works, defamiliarizing the reader’s
perception of what a poem should look like. l(a is one
of the more extreme examples of this.
them so that they can experience it anew.
This is why literature is always pushing against its
boundaries.
Repeated
enough,
what
is
unfamiliar
eventually becomes familiar. You are then forced to find
new ways to defamiliarize it.
Examples of Defamiliarization
Here
are
some
works
that
demonstrate
defamiliarization. Most of these utilize unusual or
unexpected language, changes in point of view, varying
narrative structures, and unfamiliar descriptions to jolt
readers from their expectations and make them think
more deeply about the text.
1. Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka
Here, the human protagonist
wakes up one morning to find
themselves suddenly turned
into a giant insect. Kafka
defamiliarizes the concept of
humanity by presenting a
character whose thoughts and
emotions are human but
contained within a grotesque,
inhuman form.
5. Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett
Two bedraggled men meet by a leafless tree,
engaging in a variety of discussions while waiting for
the title character, who never arrives.
This play defamiliarizes the audience with the
conventions of storytelling by presenting to them a
narrative that is static, circular, and absurd. Godot
never arrives, the plot never progresses, and the
audience is forced to pay more attention to the random
dialogue and encounters that do happen.
6. Kholstomer by Leo Tolstoy
An old horse speaks to his herd about the troubled
life he led. Because the narrator is a horse and the
story is seen from its perspective, the world becomes
unfamiliar to a human audience.
2. Mullholland Drive
In a nutshell
An aspiring actress befriends an amnesiac
woman. They team up to navigate the complex and
mysterious world of Hollywood. But unlike the usual,
The goal of defamiliarization is to render an
object strange and unfamiliar so that the reader is
forced to look at it in a different way. This transforms
the object from something ordinary into something
artistic.
By utilizing defamiliarization, writers are able to
illustrate how art and reality intersect. They’re able to
pack in more into their text, giving readers the
opportunity to find more meaning and think more
critically about literature.
5. Children’s fiction: Children’s literature is a
genre of fiction that can range from books for
toddlers to full length young adult novels.
6. Fanfiction: Fanfiction is a genre of fiction in
which fans take source material from existing
franchises and then spin them off into separate
narratives of their own.
6 Elements of Good Fiction Writing
6 Elements of Successful Fiction Writing
In order to write fiction successfully, it’s imperative that
6 Types of Fiction Writing
There are many different types of fiction. Genres of
fiction are typically defined by their tone and subject
you understand the elements of fiction. The main
elements of fiction are:
matter. The term “genre fiction” generally encompasses
popular types of fiction situated within a specific genre
1. Character: Novels are driven by fictional
outside of standard literary fiction. Some of the most
characters. Depending on the scope of a novel,
popular forms of fiction include:
you may follow one central character or several
major characters. Most novels follow fully-formed
fiction has
round characters who resemble real human
characters based on real people and often bases
beings and undergo significant change over the
its plots on real-life events. Generally, many
course of the story. Additionally, a genre novel
elements of plot or dialogue are fabricated by the
will likely also have minor characters who are flat
author, although it’s up to the writer how much
characters who don’t undergo significant change.
to invent.
Good
1. Historical
fiction: Historical
character
development
means
describes
understanding the backstory and background
mainstream highbrow fiction. Literary fiction
information that informs your character’s point of
encompasses most books taught in high school
view. When developing realistic characters with
English courses and most books that are up for
clear points of view, it can be useful to think
major annual prizes like the Pulitzer Prize or Man
about your own point of view and how it has
Booker Prize. Literary fiction often depicts
evolved as you lived through events in the real
nuanced
world.
2. Literary
fiction: Literary
themes
and
fiction
incorporates
literary
devices.
2. Plot: Plot is simply a series of events that
3. Mystery fiction: Mystery novels are plot driven
makes up the narrative action of a story. Plot as
thrillers based around a crime or other form of
an element of fiction generally revolves around
mystery.
rising action, followed by a turning point, followed
4. Science fiction: Science fiction is a genre of
fiction that often depicts stories set against the
backdrop of futuristic technology and dystopian
societies.
by falling action and a denouement at the end of
the story.
3. Setting: Setting is one of the primary story
elements found in fiction. Setting dictates the
location and time period of a story. You might
maintain a single setting for an entire story, or
you might move between multiple. A fiction writer
personality, private thoughts, and actions. There are two
might choose to set their novel entirely on the
types of characterization in fiction writing:
same New York City block but jump time periods
through flashbacks.
4. Point of view: Point of view in prose has to do
•
Indirect characterization
•
Direct characterization
with the perspective from which you choose to
Both indirect characterization and direct characterization
write. The three main POVs in writing are first-
work together to create a complete picture of your
person, second-person, and third-person. Most
character for the reader. Remember that characters, like
stories are written in third-person point of view or
people, are imperfect. They don’t need to be likable, but
first-person point of view, though second-person
they must be interesting.
is occasionally employed. The point of view from
which you choose to write affects how a reader
processes your story. A third-person narrator can
bring a more objective, aloof tone to a narrative,
whereas a first person narrator can make the
story feel more subjective and intimate.
5. Theme: Theme is one of the characteristics of
fiction that authors can really sink their teeth into
when writing a full-length novel. Theme is a
larger message or motif that an author explores
to make a larger point about everyday life or the
world around us. All other elements can work
What Is Indirect Characterization?
Indirect
characterization is the
process of
describing a character through that character’s thoughts,
actions, speech, and dialogue. An author will use this type
of characterization to guide the reader in making their
own conclusions about a character.
2
Examples
of
Indirect
Characterization
in
Literature
Indirect characterization is a useful tool in illustrating a
character. Often, what’s left unsaid or unstated creates
an even more powerful image in the reader’s mind.
together to convey themes in a work of fiction.
6. Style: Style in creative writing starts with word
1. Anne in Anne of Green Gables by L.M.
choice. When we talk about fiction stories, we talk
Montgomery. “My life is a perfect graveyard of
about the diction (or choice of words) that an
buried hopes.” Here, Montgomery created a
author chooses to employ and the structure of
character who has a complex and active
their work. There are no style guides or rules for
imagination, is extremely curious and awestruck
fiction stories. and novels are an exciting place
by the world around her, and who also has a very
for writers to play around with bold stylistic
dark past with residual emotional trauma coming
choices.
to the forefront.
2. Atticus in To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper
Lee. “Scout, simply by the nature of the work,
Guide to Direct Characterization and Indirect
Characterization
every lawyer gets at least one case in his lifetime
that affects him personally. This one’s mine, I
What Is Characterization?
guess. You might hear some ugly talk about it at
Characterization is the description of a character’s
school, but do one thing for me if you will: you
physical traits (how a character looks), point of view,
just hold your head high and keep those fists
down. No matter what anybody says to you, don’t
you let ’em get your goat.” In this excerpt, Atticus
is speaking to Scout about an upcoming,
controversial trial. The reader can infer that from
What
Is
the
Difference
Between
Indirect
this interaction that Atticus is trying to instill in
Characterization and Direct Characterization?
Scout the sense that a person should always
Knowing the difference between indirect characterization
continue to fight for what they believe, regardless
and direct characterization can help you determine which
of the consequences. This passage illuminates
one is better suited to your work.
Atticus’s strong moral compass, and the morals
•
he hopes to instill in his children.
Indirect characterization describes a character
through their thoughts, actions, speech, and
What
Are
the
Advantages
of
Indirect
dialogue.
•
Characterization?
Direct
characterization,
or
explicit
Adding indirect characterization to your writing is a
characterization, describes the character through
powerful way to convey those unspoken thoughts and
their physical description, line of work, or
traits that convey the true essence of a person. But you
passions and pursuits.
have to take care to guide your reader’s experience, less
Though readers will always draw their own conclusions,
they miss important clues that you drop via indirect
they may draw conclusions far from your intent if you
characterization.
don’t offer enough clues through detail work. This is not
necessarily always a drawback—readers bring different
•
•
Indirect
characterization
humanizes
a
backgrounds and experiences to their interpretation of
character. By revealing a character’s thoughts,
your text. But if you lean too heavily on indirect
emotions, and world view in various contexts, you
characterization for major plot points and the reader
provide your reader with a robust understanding
misses your clues, the gap in understanding may lead to
of who your characters are.
an unsatisfying reading experience.
Indirect characterization strengthens your
writing by showing, not telling. For example,
you could write your character was “rude,” or
show your character blowing cigarette smoke in
What Is Flash Fiction? Learn How To Write Flash
another character’s face. Both convey the same
Fiction in 7 Steps
message, however, the first method of direct
characterization is much less subtle than the
second method of indirect characterization.
•
Indirect
characterization
inspires
discovery and provokes the imagination. As
a writer, you are leading your reader through
your story. By weaving indirect characterization
through your narrative, you provide the reader
with
the
opportunity
to
draw
their
own
conclusions and make their own discoveries, for
an overall more satisfying and intriguing reading
experience.
What Is Flash Fiction?
Flash fiction is a genre of fiction, defined as a very
short story. While there is no set word count that
separates flash fiction from more traditional short stories,
flash fiction stories can be as short as a few words (while
short stories typically run for several pages). Flash fiction
is also known as sudden fiction, short-short stories,
microfiction, or microstories.
3 Characteristics of Flash Fiction
Flash fiction stories share a number of common
characteristics.
•
Brevity. Flash fiction compresses an entire
dedicated flash fiction magazine, publishing stories of
story into the space of a few paragraphs. There
1,000 words or less.
is no defined word count for flash fiction, but
some commonly used word limits in flash fiction
range from just six words on the short end to
around 1,000 words on the longer end.
•
A complete plot. A flash fiction story is indeed
a story, with a beginning, middle, and end. This
sets it apart from a prose poem or vignette, which
can explore an emotion, memory, or thought
without a plot.
•
Learn How To Write Flash Fiction in 6 Steps
Writing flash fiction can be an exercise in creative
restraint, whether you intend your work for publication or
just as an exercise. Here’s a quick guide on how to get
started.
1. Use strong imagery. Make every single word
Surprise. Great flash fiction often incorporates
surprise, usually in the form of a twist ending or
an unexpected last line. This is not a gimmick:
the aim is to prompt the reader to think deeply
about the true meaning of the story.
count. Help your readers visualize as much as
possible.
2. Stick to one moment. Focus on one particular
moment in time. Don’t try to cram in more than
one scene into a piece of flash fiction.
What Are the Origins of Flash Fiction?
3. Work with just one or two characters.
Flash fiction dates back to the time of fables and
parables. The form was popularized in the nineteenth
century by writers like Walt Whitman, Kate Chopin, and
Ambrose Bierce. Perhaps the best-known flash fiction
story is from this time (although frequently misattributed
to Ernest Hemingway). The entire story is six words long:
Don’t spread your story too thin. If you find
yourself needing more than two characters or two
scenes, your story may be better suited to the
short story format.
4. Try first person point of view. This will
create an instant connection to the reader and
allow you to express more in fewer words.
“For sale: baby shoes, never worn.”
5. Surprise your reader. Make sure to end your
The amount of emotion packed into these words inspired
story on a different emotional note than the one
many writers to try their hand at the genre. In the 1980s,
you started on. Creating surprise is what flash
Robert Shepard and James Thomas published a set of
fiction is all about; take the reader on a journey,
anthologies of flash fiction called Sudden Fiction, which
no matter how short.
spurred another resurgence of the form. Another highly
6. Make good use of your title. When you have
influential anthology was Flash Fiction, published in 1992
so few words to work with, your title can pack a
by W. W. Norton. It features 72 flash fiction stories and
punch. Take Joyce Carol Oates’s flash fiction
was edited by Tom Hazuka, Denise Thomas, and James
story Widow’s First Year. The story reads, simply:
Thomas.
“I kept myself alive.”
Well known contemporary flash fiction writers
include Lydia Davis, George Saunders, Jamaica Kincaid,
Joy
Williams,
and
Stuart
Dybek.
The
literary
magazine SmokeLong Quarterly, founded in 2003, is a