DIWA Senior High School Series:
Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics (Second
Edition)
e-Module
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Author
MARIA CARINNES P. ALEJANDRIA-GONZALEZ is an anthropologist who works on
issues of global health, urban poor, and aging. She is a PhD in Anthropology candidate at
the University of the Philippines (UP) – Diliman. Ms. Gonzalez is currently an assistant
professor in the Department of Sociology of the University of Santo Tomas (UST). She is
also the lead associate researcher for Social Health Studies of the Research Center for
Social Sciences and Education of UST. She holds a master's degree in Education (major in
Social Sciences) from the Palawan State University in Puerto Princesa, Palawan and a
bachelor's degree in Social Sciences (major in Anthropology and Political Science) from the
University of the Philippines – Baguio.
Reviewer
HENRY M. CUSTODIO is a program specialist of the Research and Development
Department of the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in
Agriculture (SEARCA), where he is tasked to handle research initiatives on food and
nutrition security, agricultural marketing, agricultural value chains, inclusive growth, and
cross-cutting issues in agriculture and rural development. Prior to joining SEARCA in 2012,
he was a research analyst at the Asian Development Bank, where he was involved in the
evaluation of the food price crisis in Southeast Asia, social safety net programs in South
Asia, and greenhouse gas emissions vis-à-vis economic development and development
assistance, among others.
Mr. Custodio was also involved in numerous foreign-assisted project evaluation studies and
basic research projects, as well as project planning and implementation around the country.
He is an ongoing PhD student at the University of the Philippines – Los Baños (UPLB)
under the Environmental Science program, cognate in Agricultural Economics. He obtained
his master's degree in Development Management from the same university, where he was
sent to Nagoya University in Japan to specialize in International Development. His
baccalaureate degree is also from UPLB, where he majored in Sociology.
This book is produced by an academic publisher whose quality
management system is certified to ISO 9001.
Preface
The world is an increasing culturally plural environment.
Globalization has made territorial borders fluid and has
allowed for the interaction of people coming from various
walks of life. Although abounding in beneficial impacts such as
more liberal economies and cultural exchanges, such
interactions may also create tension among individuals who
subscribe to differing sets of morals and ideals. This textbook,
Diwa Senior High School Series: Understanding Culture,
Society, and Politics (Second Edition), will equip you with
conceptual tools from three social sciences disciplines to
make sense of today's changing world. First, anthropology will
provide you with its lens of cultural relativism that would
enable you to be sensitive with the diversity of cultural
practices and traditions of human beings. Second, sociology
will engage you in a scientific discourse of social dynamics
relating to human agency. Last, political science will equip you
with models and conceptual frameworks that you may use to
appraise political events and behaviors. The textbook will help
you respond to the challenges posed by the shifting
technologies, environments, and ideals in the world by
providing you with information and activities that emphasize
the K to 12 methods of collaboration, reflection, integration,
research, and constructivism.
As a book that is engineered to meet the demands of 21st
century learners, the Diwa Senior High School Series:
Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics (Second Edition),
textbook is organized into modules that also focus on the
theme of differentiated instruction. This will hopefully develop
skills relevant to the current environment. The activities
provided in the book will engage you to revisit data sources
and apply these in your potential career, which may be in the
fields of academic, technical-vocational, sports, and arts and
design. Following the pedagogy of research- and outcomesbased approach, your knowledge and understanding of the
modules will be assessed using tools such as performance
tasks, written works, and quarterly tests. There are also
culminating activities in each unit that would enhance your
capacity to create new knowledge through your collaboration
with your classmates.
Understanding yourself within the framework of a greater
society will lead to a more productive and adaptive set of
behaviors that could empower you as you face the challenges
of a changing world. By understanding that humans are
products of their history, environment, and culture, you will be
more accepting of the variation in people's characteristics and
practices. This would lead you to become a more socially
inclusive and global-ready individual.
The Author
Table of Contents
Unit I
Development of Humans as Social
Actors
Module 1
Human Variation
Module 2
Human Evolution and Culture
Module 3
Anthropology and the Study of Culture
Module 4
Sociology and the Study of Society
Module 5
Political Science and the Study of Politics
Module 6
Enculturation and Socialization
Module 7
Social Organization
Culminating Output
Quarter Challenge
Unit II
Humans and Institutions
Module 8
Module 9
Module 10
Module 11
Module 12
Module 13
Module 14
Module 15
Module 16
Kinship
Political and Leadership Structures
Economic Organization
Nonstate Institutions
Social and Political Stratification
Education
Religion and Belief Systems
Health
Social Change
Culminating Output
Quarter Challenge
Bibliography
Unit
I
Development of Humans as
Social Actors
What makes us human? This is the question that this unit leads you to
answer. From the physical attributes of humans to the sociocultural traits
that they developed as members of a society or a community, this unit
guides you through six modules on how to understand the concept of being
human. By understanding our nature as human beings, you will be able to
understand our reactions to varying environmental factors.
The first module aids you in understanding the variations of human
attributes. Although we all belong to just one species, you may have noticed
that we have different physical characteristics, behavioral patterns, and
languages. You will learn through this module that human identities are
constructed by their affiliation and their negotiation with established
structures and systems in society. The second module continues to address
the question on human variation by focusing on the evolutionary processes
that have determined our physical traits.
The third to fifth modules provide you with conceptual tools to
understanding humans as individuals and as members of groups. The third
module introduces you to the concept of culture through the discipline of
anthropology. The fourth module leads you to an inquiry on the concept of
society through the lens of sociology. The fifth module lets you interrogate
the nature of humans as political actors through the field of political science.
In the sixth module, you will learn the processes by which humans
acquire their sets of beliefs and practices. You will be introduced to the
concepts of enculturation and socialization as processes of knowledge,
values, and attitudes transfer.
■ Demonstrate understanding of the following:
• Human cultural variation, social differences, social change,
and political identities
• Importance of studying culture, society, and politics
• Rationale for studying anthropology, political science, and
sociology
• Culture and society as anthropological and sociological
concepts
•
•
•
•
Perspectives in or approaches to the study of culture and
society (i.e., comparative, historical, structural-functional,
interpretive critical)
Human origins and the capacity for culture
Role of culture in human adaptation
Processes of cultural and sociopolitical evolution
•
•
Enculturation and its effect on human adaptation
Perspectives on human behavior as part of a sociopolitical
community
■ Acknowledge human cultural variation, social differences, social
change, and political identities
■ Adopt an open and critical attitude toward different social,
political, and cultural phenomena through observation and
reflection
■ Appreciate the value of the disciplines of anthropology,
sociology, and political science as social sciences
■ Appreciate the nature of culture and society from the
perspectives of anthropology and sociology
■ Demonstrate a holistic understanding of culture and society
■ Value cultural heritage and express pride of place without being
ethnocentric
■ Analyze key features of interrelationships among biological,
cultural, and sociopolitical processes in human evolution that can
still be used and developed further
■ Identify norms and values to be observed in interacting with
others in society, and the consequences of ignoring these rules
■ Assess the rules of social interaction to maintain stability of
everyday life and the role of innovation in response to problems
and challenges
■ Recognize the value of human rights and promote the common
good
Module
1
Human Variation
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Articulate observations on human cultural variation, social
differences, social change, and political identities.
2. Demonstrate curiosity and an openness to explore the origins
and dynamics of culture, society, and political identity.
3. Be aware of why and how cultural relativism mitigates
ethnocentrism.
4. Value cultural relativism and ethnocentrism.
5. Justify why race is a limited schema as a human classification
tool. (Enrichment)
Look at your seatmates. Notice the shape of their nose, the color of their
hair, and the color (or tone) of their skin. Are theirs similar to yours? Do
you speak the same language? Do you eat the same food?
These are some of the questions that you could ask to see the differences
among humans. As you read along this module, keep in mind this question:
What makes us different?
Environment and history are two of the primary factors that shape the
behavior of human groups. This behavior, which serves as an adaptive tool
for the varied stimuli projected by the environment, is influenced by beliefs,
practices, and material possessions. Through constant practice, these sets of
behavior form human traditions, which are passed on from one generation to
the other.
As each human group experiences differing environmental conditions,
cultural variations are established. Comparing the traditions crafted by the
Inuits of the Arctic Regions of Canada and the !Kung of Kalahari Desert in
Namibia, you can see the stark difference in their types of clothing which
are highly functional for the type of weather where they live. The Inuits who
live in frigid areas of Canada wear thick layers of garment made of animal
fur while the !Kung wear loose, single-layer clothes made of cotton to
combat the desert heat in Africa.
Fig. 1.1
(Left) Inuit children wearing clothes made of animal fur; (Right) ¡Kung
bushmen wearing g-strings and shawls
Inuit photo source:
¡Kung Photo source:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/lacbac/6348404990
https://www.flickr.com/photos/fvfavo/152519867
10
Reflect Upon
Korean dramas, or K-dramas, became popular forms of entertainment
in our country as early as 2007. With your seatmate, compare a K-drama
series to a Filipino drama series that you have followed in terms of the
following:
1. Roles of men and women in the show
2. Types of clothing that they wore
3. Kinds of environment that provided as the setting of the series
(tropical, temperate, frigid)
After your comparison, summarize in two paragraphs the similarities
and differences of the two TV series.
Nationality and Ethnicity
The concepts of nationality and ethnicity are not interchangeable. Both,
however, are capable of informing an individual's behavior and habits due to
a set of cultural norms that each category provides. Nationality is the
identity that is tied to being part of a nation or country—a “group of people
who share the same history, traditions, and language” and who inhabits a
particular territory delineated by a political border and administered by a
government. Nationality can be acquired by being born in a country or
through legal processes such as naturalization on citizenship.
Within a nation are smaller cultural groups that share specific social
environments, traditions, and histories that may not be necessarily
subscribed to by mainstream society. These are called ethnic groups. There
are about 180 indigenous ethnic groups in the Philippines and more than
100 tribal groups who are mostly inhabiting legally awarded ancestral
domains.
Beyond Walls 1.1
Go Online
How Pinoy are you? Visit http://opinion.inquirer.net/column/pinoykasi, which features the articles of columnist and anthropologist Prof.
Michael Tan. Using one article as reference, create a comic strip that
highlights the Filipino trait that was discussed in this section.
Apart from the varying cultural backgrounds and ethnicity, human
populations also experience social differences, which include categories on
gender, socioeconomic class (social class and economic status), political
identity, and religious beliefs.
Gender
According to the World Health Organization (2013), gender “refers to
the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a
given society considers appropriate for men and women.” Unlike sex which
refers to the biological characteristic of humans such as male or female,
gender categories are more varied, accommodating identities such as
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (collectively referred
to as LGBTQI), among others.
In some societies, gender becomes a basis of one's identity, as social
norms allow for their acceptance or neglect by the majority of the
population. In cases of neglect, individuals who subscribe to alternative
genders create groups and communities where they can articulate their
thoughts and aspirations more openly.
There are several types of gender based on a person's sexual orientation.
Depending on the community, these gender identities can be further
subdivided into more specific categories.
The most common is heterosexual. A person with this gender is inclined
to be sexually attracted to a person of the opposite sex. When a person is
sexually attracted to a person of the same sex, he or she is a homosexual. A
male who is romantically and sexually attracted to another male is called
gay in popular culture, and a female who is romantically and sexually
attracted to another female is considered a lesbian. There are some
individuals who are attracted to both sexes, which make them bisexual, and
there are some who are totally incapable of being attracted to any sex, thus
making them asexual. Individuals who are attracted to multiple types of
gender identify with the polysexual orientation, which is different from
pansexual, who accommodate all types of gender.
Finally, there are people whose gender identities do not match their
biological identity as male or female. These people identify themselves as
transgender. Their sexual orientation is not related to their genitalia, which
allow them to identify with any other type of gender such as heterosexual,
homosexual, pansexual, bisexual, and asexual. Under this category are
people who identify themselves as transsexual. These individuals believe
that the discord between their internal gender and the gender role that they
have to perform can be addressed through medical sexual reassignment.
Fig. 1.2
Participants of the 2012 Pride March in Manila
Source:
http://gridcrosser.blogspot.com/2012/12/mix-and-march-metro-manilacolored-by.html
Developments in the understanding of human diversity with regard to
gender have allowed for the acceptance of the term “SOGIE” in the
LGBTQI discussion. SOGIE (or sexual orientation, gender identity, and
gender expression) enables for a wider and more fluid discussion of human
identity. Sexual orientation refers to a person's biological identity, which
may be male, female, or intersex (i.e., hermaphrodite). Gender identity is an
individual's internal concept of self that may be related to being masculine,
feminine, neither, or both, without strict relation to the physical
characteristics that the person has. So a person could be physically male but
have a female gender identity. Gender expression is how an individual
chooses to present himself or herself in society. This can be observed in the
choices on pronouns that they use to refer to themselves, the clothes that
they wear, and the general behavior they display to signify their gender
identity.
Beyond Walls 1.2
Go Online
SOGIE can be quite confusing for individuals whose orientation to
gender is on a normative context (e.g., being born male would
immediately be equated to being masculine in gender). This link will
direct you to a video lecture of Rikki Arundel on the importance of
gender identity: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IFBU7h7fqLc
After watching the video, get a sheet of paper and draw an item that
represents a particular gender in your society (e.g., dolls for women).
Below your drawing, write a paragraph that discusses your reason(s) for
thinking that that particular item is exclusively related to that gender.
Socioeconomic Class
The concept of socioeconomic class varies between societies as the
ideas associated with being poor or rich differ based on the collective
experiences of individuals. As such, Filipinos who are from the Global
South (developing countries) would perceive poverty differently from
Singaporeans who are from the Global North (developed countries or
industrialized nations). People falling into different social classes are bound
to experience life differently such as in the form of transportation and the
type and amount of food that they can afford and consume daily. The typical
determinants of one's social status include income, value of assets and
amount of savings, cultural interests and hobbies, and economic status of his
or her peers and relatives.
In Great Britain, a new survey revealed the fragmentation of the British
traditional three-class system which includes the upper, middle, and
working classes, to the seven-class system: “elite, established middle class,
technical middle class, new affluent workers, traditional working class,
emergent service workers, and the precariat” (Smith, 2013). This shift is
primarily attributed to the diversifying global economy. This phenomenon
was also observed in the United States as the predominantly middle class
has been recorded to shrink in percentage as the poor grow in number.
Big Idea
The world is polarized due to socioeconomic and political
inequalities.
In the Philippines, our indicators of social class are different, given the
economic and political context in which our country is in. Although
government surveys take into account the factors enumerated earlier such as
income and value of assets, Filipinos often describe their social class in
personalized contexts. Hence, when you ask a Filipino what his or her social
class is, the response can be any of the following: mahirap, medyo
mayaman, sakto lang, mayaman, and the like.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How is social class constructed?
2. What contexts allowed for the change in Great Britain's social class
dynamics?
3. Referring to the cited social categories used among Filipinos,
classify your family's status. Explain.
Beyond Walls 1.3
Go Online
In the United States, social inequality remains a pervading issue that
transcends various segments of American society. This link will lead
you to an article that discusses the factors and contexts that inform the
growing
inequality
in
the
US:
http://money.cnn.com/2016/12/22/news/economy/us-inequality-worse/
After reading the article, create a poster that will inform the reader
on social inequality, points for activism, and vulnerable groups.
Political Identity
Political identity as a social category refers to the set of attitudes and
practices that an individual adheres to in relation to the political systems and
actors within his or her society. Petryna (2001) discussed the context of
“biological citizenship” as an adaptive tool utilized by individuals who were
biologically affected by the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986. She argued:
“the damaged biology of a population has become the grounds for social
membership and the basis for staking citizenship claims.”
Political parties in the Philippines such as Ang Ladlad, a party that
negotiates for the welfare of the LGBTQI community, and Kabataan, a party
that promotes youth empowerment, are examples of how sectors in our
society use their identities as political vehicles to negotiate for, and lobby
their needs. Religion can also offer political identity to its followers.
Members of the church Iglesia ni Cristo promote the practice of block
voting, a church-based exercise of one's right to suffrage wherein the
ministers and the members agree to unanimously vote for a chosen
candidate or political party lineup.
In a more rigid context, an individual can acquire political identity by
subscribing to a political belief such as communism, democracy, or
socialism.
Fig 1.3.
(Left) Iglesia ni Cristo sample ballot given to its members for the 2016
National Elections; (Right) preelection meeting between then presidential
candidate Rodrigo Duterte and INC executive minister Eduardo Manalo
Source:
Twitter and Eagle News
Religion
The belief in the supernatural has been one of the universal
preoccupations of humans as early as 60 000 years ago. The earliest forms
of religion revolved around making sense of natural occurrences such as
extreme weather conditions, natural and man-made calamities, sickness, and
even death.
Early human art exuded ancient forms of superstitions that included
beliefs in the afterlife and that of superhuman capabilities. The Sorcerer of
Les Gabillou is an example of a Paleolithic artwork. This artwork depicts
the supernatural ability of a religious practitioner to become half-man and
half-animal.
Fig.1.4.
Early Paleolithic art of a half-human, half-animal found in France
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic#/media/File:Gabillou_Sorcier.png
Today, religion has evolved to promote far complex forms of
understanding human nature, the afterlife, and natural events. Some are
monotheistic, believing in the existence of one god, whereas others are
polytheistic, believing in the existence of multiple gods. Some religions
have gods arranged in a hierarchy, and others have gods that equally coexist.
What must be noted is that religion is a mirror of the society that affiliates
with it, such that a society with a strong caste system such as India is
expected to have a set of gods that are placed in a hierarchical system as
well.
Here is a graphical distribution of the world's population by its religious
affiliations.
Fig. 1.5
A 2016 map of the world (colored based on religious orientation of the
population)
Source:
https://carfleo.com/2016/01/25/world-religions-links-general/
Beyond Walls 1.4
Read and Answer
The interrelationship between religious orientation and warfare has
been well documented in human history. From the French Wars of
Religions in the 16th century between Catholics and Protestants, to the
Bosnian War between 1992 and 1995 among Muslims, Catholics, and
Orthodox Christians, religion has played a vital role in informing
decisions of populations to go to war.
Visit this link to read an article on the war at the Gaza Strip between
Israelis and Palestinians:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel
/11006125/Gaza-explained-Why-Israel-and-Palestinians-arein-constant-conflict-over-Gaza.html
After reading the article, answer the following questions, and
discuss your answers with your classmates:
1. How did religion influence the conflict in the region?
2. How was religious conflict turned to political aggression?
Exceptionality/Non-exceptionality
Some individuals do not conform to behavioral or cognitive norms, not
because they intend to deviate, but because they are exceptional. The
concept of exceptionality leans on the non-average capacity of an
individual. This could be understood in a spectrum of capabilities, wherein
you have the geniuses in one extreme and you have the disabled and
challenged in the other extreme. Such characteristics would place an
individual in compromising situations as the environment demands
conformity. Issues relating to both statuses can range from having fewer
employment opportunities due to being physically disabled to not reaching
one's full capacity due to the lack of advanced mechanisms to support an
exceptional talent.
Big Idea
Human variation is predicated by the plurality of cultural and
environmental conditions.
Cultural Variation
The variation in human conditions promotes diversity and plurality in
cultural traditions. This could lead to discrimination and ostracism.
Ethnocentrism is a perspective that promotes an individual's culture as the
most efficient and superior; hence, the individual who exhibits
ethnocentrism feels that his or her culture is the most appropriate as
compared with other cultures. This may also manifest in a belief that one's
set of morals is better than those of others, such that one's religion is
accepted as a truer form of belief system. This perspective evaluates a
particular culture based on the observer's understanding of the other, which
is often problematic, given the bias of the observer due to his or her own
culture's preconditioning.
Using this perspective as a lens in understanding society is problematic
on the basis that each culture is efficient and appropriate for the
environment where it finds its practice. For example, forcing the Maasais to
wear fur-based clothing that Eskimos typically wear would be inappropriate
due to the difference in the environments where these two groups live.
When faced with a plurality of culture, you may adapt the conceptual
tool of cultural relativism, which promotes the perspective that cultures
must be understood in the context of their locality. Using this perspective
makes you tolerant of the differing attitudes and practices of others—a
characteristic that is essential to a highly globalized world that we live in
today.
Traditions, social norms, and political identities are not static because
they are often affected by the environment. Social change occurs as human
populations adapt to their dynamic surroundings. Other factors that trigger
social change include technology and globalization. This will be further
discussed in Module 15.
Ferraro and Andretta advocate a more culturally relative approach to
understanding other human groups. They said that one can build emotional
resilience by understanding that others do not necessarily mean to offend,
but that their actions are guided by their own cultural norms. And with such
a predisposition, one can balance the contradictions within his or her team
and appreciate other perspectives that can enhance the potential for
collaboration.
Another problematic form of classification for human groups is rooted
in race. From the 17th to the early 19th century, the term race was used as a
form of human classification that was based on observable human traits and
characteristics. Some of the earlier categories include Caucasoid,
Australoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid. These categories merely reflect the
differences in skin color, size of skull, height, body frame, and other
physical characteristics. The clear delineation among these categories is
blurred by the constant intermarriages among peoples of various ethnic
origins producing offspring who possess mixed traits from the parents. In
the Philippines, an individual whose parents have different ethno-biological
backgrounds is often dubbed as a mestiza (female) or a mestizo (male).
Due to the social contexts associated with racial groups, discrimination
was further exacerbated. In countries that practiced slavery of African
populations, racial discrimination against individuals of African descent by
the colonizers became a highly observable phenomenon.
From racial slurs to unequal access, and to benefits and opportunities,
racism creates a deep social cleavage that further marginalizes the subjects
of racial oppression. In a 2016 study of the Sentencing Project through Dr.
Nellis, it was noted that, “African Americans are incarcerated in state
prisons at a rate that is 5.1 times the imprisonment of whites. In five states
(Iowa, Minnesota, New Jersey, Vermont, and Wisconsin), the disparity is
more than 10 to 1.” This vulnerability to incarceration is attributed to the
distinctly lower household income of black families than their white
counterparts. Such economic conditioning creates ripples in other facets of
their lives, which include lesser access to good education, poor housing
conditions, and lesser to no access to health care.
Filipinos have also been subject to various forms of racism, having been
subjected to three major colonizing powers (Spanish, American, and
Japanese). These forms of racism include segregated spaces, disqualification
from potential work despite qualifications, and inaccessibility to quality
education.
Big Idea
The differences among human populations are socially and
systemically constructed.
The question that everyone must answer in relation to racial variation is
this: Are humans really different from one another, or are our differences
just skin-deep?
Some scholars would argue that there should be biological
egalitarianism among humans to prevent further racism. This perspective
promotes the equality of our biological makeup despite our ancestry.
Beyond Walls 1.5
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Arts and Design
You are a fashion designer who will be exhibiting a collection at this
year's Fashion Week. The theme for this year is “Overlapping Textiles:
Intercultural Designs.” The show aims to present how local designs and
textiles have accommodated the techniques of other countries.
As a designer from the Philippines, create a clothing line that
represents the fusion of Philippine materials with those of another Asian
country. You need to produce a visual representation of the clothing line
and discuss its influences to a set of judges who will evaluate your
presentation based on creativity, cultural relevance, and clarity of and
relevance to the theme.
Extend Your Knowledge
Societies are being polarized by the subscription of their population to
extremist leanings that are rooted on human variation. In the US, the neoNazi group has continuously assaulted, verbally and physically,
individuals that do not conform to the group's concept of racial purity.
This group is very much wary of immigrants and colored people. This
reading introduces you to a group called the Black Bloc, which
fundamentally opposes the Neo-Nazi movement:
http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc20170212-story.html
Essential Learning
An understanding and acceptance of human variation as a product of
cultural and environmental plurality creates space for greater
collaboration among populations and limits the possibility of developing
hostile intentions toward dissimilar groups. In an increasingly globalized
world, extremism and exclusivity are two traits that are proven nonbeneficial, whereas a culturally relative approach is sure to promote
collaboration and communication across populations.
Module
2
Human Evolution and Culture
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Trace the biological and cultural evolution from early to modern
humans.
2. Explore the significance of human material remains as pieces of
artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural and social, political,
and economic processes.
3. Recognize national, local, and specialized museums, and
archaeological and historical sites as venues to appreciate and
reflect on the complexities of biocultural and social evolution as
part of being and becoming human.
4. Identify forms of tangible and intangible heritage, and the threats
to these.
Cultural Beginnings
Culture is defined as “that complex whole which encompasses beliefs,
practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and
everything that a person learns and shares as a member of a society” (Tylor,
2010). It is a by-product of the attempt of humans to survive their
environment and to compensate for their biological characteristics and
limitations. To understand culture, you need to know the following:
1. Biological capacity of humans for culture
2. Place of humans in the animal kingdom
3. How humans came to develop early forms of culture
Biological Capacity for Culture
The need to scrutinize human anatomy to understand culture is
indispensable. Physical and cultural anthropologists argue that we could
trace how culture became possible by understanding our biological makeup.
1. Our thinking capacity
The primary biological component of humans that allowed for
culture is the developed brain. It has the necessary parts for facilitating
pertinent skills such as speaking, touching, feeling, seeing, and smelling.
Fig. 2.1.
The human brain and its parts
The frontal lobe and the motor cortex function for cognition and motor
abilities. The parietal lobe allows for touch and taste abilities. The temporal
lobe allows for hearing skills. The occipital lobe allows for visual skills.
Compared with other primates, humans have a larger brain, weighing
1.4 kg. Chimpanzees have a brain weighing only 420 g, and those of gorillas
weigh 500 g. Due to the size of their brain and the complexity of its parts,
humans were able to create survival skills that helped them adapt to their
environment and outlive their less adaptive biological relatives.
Fig. 2.2.
Brain size comparison among primates
2. Our speaking capacity
As the brain is the primary source of humans' capacity to comprehend
sound and provide meaning to it, the vocal tract acts as the mechanism by
which sounds are produced and reproduced to transmit ideas and values.
Notice in Figure 2.3 that the vocal tract of a human is longer than that of a
chimpanzee. A longer vocal tract means that there is a longer vibration
surface, allowing humans to produce a wider array of sounds than
chimpanzees. The tongue of humans is also more flexible than that of a
chimpanzee, allowing for more control in making sounds.
Fig. 2.3.
Vocal tract comparison between a chimpanzee (left) and a human (right).
Traditional scientific belief pegs the development of language at 100
000 years ago, making it an exclusive trait of the modern human. However,
Dan Dediu from the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in the
Netherlands argued that the origin of language may be rooted as far back as
500 000 years ago, based on the discovered bone fragment from an ancestor
known as Homo heidelbergensis. This fossil is a hyoid bone which is
“crucial for speaking as it supports the root of the tongue” (Hogenboom,
2013). Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals), our nearest relative, was also
found to have the same bone, which functions similarly as ours. Hence,
current arguments include that Neanderthals were a truly human species.
3. Our gripping capacity
Look at your hands. Notice how your thumb relates with your other
fingers. This capacity to directly oppose your thumb with your other fingers
is an exclusive trait of humans. It allowed us to have a finer grip. Thus, we
have the capability to craft materials with precision.
Fig.2.4.
Hands of selected primates
Reflect Upon
Given the contemporary behavior of humans, project a potential
biological development that may occur to our species and its possible
functions.
The hand of a human has digits (fingers) that are straight, as compared
with the curved ones of the other primates. Notice that the thumb of the
human is proportionately longer than those of the other primates. These
characteristics of the human hand allow for two types of grip: power and
precision. Power grip enables humans to wrap the thumb and fingers on an
object; it became the cornerstone of our capacity to hold tools firmly for
hunting and other activities. Precision grip enables humans to hold and pick
objects steadily using their fingers. This capacity is crucial for tool-making
activities.
4. Our walking/standing capacity
Primates have two forms of locomotion: bipedalism and
quadropedalism. Bipedalism is the capacity to walk and stand on two feet,
whereas quadropedalism uses all four limbs. Although apes are semibipedal, humans are the only fully bipedal primates. Being bipedal, humans
gained more capacity to move while carrying objects with their free hands.
This is an important trait, as it gave humans more productivity with their
hands. Apart from this, humans gained a more efficient form of locomotion
suitable for hunting and foraging.
Big Idea
Cultural development
development of humans.
is
predicated
by
the
physical
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How was culture developed through the physical changes that
occurred in early humans?
2. Why is bidepalism an important development in the physical
capacity of humans?
3. Why is it important to study human evolution?
Human Origins and the Capacity for Culture
Fig. 2.5.
Timeline of human evolution
Our evolution toward humanity as we know it has been a long journey
of survival against the elements of the environment and against competing
species. As our ancestors evolved biologically in response to their
environment, they have also developed cultural technologies that aided them
to efficiently obtain food and deter predators. Archaeologists refer to these
early traditions as stone tool industries, instead of culture, as the material
products of these periods merely display the methods used by early humans
in creating tools and not the modern context by which we define it.
It is believed that the crudest methods of toolmaking may have been
practiced by the earlier Australopithecines (A. afarensis and A. africanus).
These methods may have involved the use of wood as digging sticks or even
crude spears. Although there is no archaeological evidence to prove this
claim, it is being assumed that the earlier homos had at least this capacity,
which is observed among present-day chimpanzees. Some contest this
perspective, arguing that the evidence of stone tool usage found in the
Dikika area in Ethiopia puts the timeframe to 3.4 million years ago, the
period of the Australopithecines. These pieces of evidence include grooved
and fractured bone fossils. However, as the pieces of evidence are not as
conclusive as the other discoveries, current archaeological and
anthropological timelines suggest that toolmaking started 2.6 million years
ago.
The Oldowan Industry
The Oldowan industry, a stone tool industry, is characterized by the use
of “hard water-worn creek cobbles made out of volcanic rock” (O'Neil,
2012). These raw materials were then made into tools through percussion
flaking, which is a process involving the systematic collision of a hammer
stone with a core stone. The impact of the collision produces a core tool
(used for general purposes) and a flake tool (used as a knife).
Supporting the existence of this industry is the evidence found by Mary
and Louis Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, which was dated at 2.6
million years ago. This industry is known to have been used by Homo
habilis.
Fig.2.6.
Percussion flaking method
These forms of technology allowed for the species to “butcher large
animals, because human teeth and fingers are totally inadequate for cutting
through thick skins and slicing off pieces of meat. Evidence of their use in
this manner can be seen in cut marks that still are visible on bones and it
improved their food gathering skills using the ‘hammering, digging, and
chopping implements’” (O'Neil, 2012).
From Africa, this industry spread to Europe and Asia during the
migration of Homo erectus, who acquired it from Homo habilis within 1.9–
1.8 million years ago. By 1.8–1.6 million years ago, the Oldowan industry
has already reached Java, Indonesia, and Northern China.
The Acheulian Industry
Homo erectus developed a more complex industry from what they
inherited from Homo habilis. Using the same process of percussion flaking,
Homo erectus created hand axes that were bifacial, shaped in both sides, and
with straighter and sharper edges.
Some archaeologists contest the general label of “hand axes,” as the
stone implements may have been used in different context. However, it is
still generally accepted that these stone implements were used in multiple
activities such as light chopping of wood, digging up roots and bulbs,
butchering animals, and cracking nuts and small bones. Tools that were
made were kept and not disposed of like the tools in the Oldowan industry,
as the tools of the latter set were more useful due to their generic
application. Homo erectus made other tools such as “choppers, cleavers, and
hammers as well as flakes used as knives and scrapers” (O'Neil, 2012).
Fig. 2.7.
Bifacial stone tool from the Acheulian industry
Source:
http://humanevolutionb36.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/6/2/12623644/326059742.
jpg
This industry was named after Saint Acheul, a patron saint in southwest
France, as these artifacts were discovered in the area. The artifacts date to
1.5 million years ago. Although this industry is believed to have originated
in East Africa, scholars argue that its extensive use may have been out of
Africa as Homo erectus invented this industry and brought it to Europe 900
000–500 000 years ago and to China 800 000 years ago. As no evidence is
found in other parts of Asia signifying the usage of this industry, scholars
proposed that the region may have accommodated an industry that used
perishable materials such as bamboo and other trees.
The Mousterian Industry
This industry was developed by Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals)
in Europe and West Asia between 300 000 and 30 000 years ago. This
industry was named after a site in France called Le Moustier, where
evidence was uncovered in 1860. The tools from this industry combined
Acheulian industry techniques with the Levalloisian technique, which
involved the use of a premade core tool and the extraction of a flake tool
that has sharpened edges. This type of tool is very efficient as all the sides
of the flake tool are sharpened and, due to the reduction in size, more handy.
Fig. 2.8.
A Mousterian tool
Source:
http://www.internetlooks.com/mousteriantool.jpg
Evidence of this industry dating back 100 000 years was also found in
Northern Africa and West Asia, where modern humans, such as that of
Qafze, migrated. Most archaeologists hypothesize that this industry could be
an evidence of acculturation of modern humans with their Neanderthal
relatives.
Fig. 2.9.
Stone tool development
Source:
http://images.en.yibada.com/data/images/full/30307/hominin-stone-toolsmillions-of-years-old.jpg
You can see that the tools in Figure 2.9 are different in terms of size,
shape, and sharpened sides. These differences are primarily due to the
shifting needs of the users who were adapting to their environment as they
addressed their need for food and security. It could also be said that these
are pieces of evidence of the development of tradition, as one efficient trait
is borrowed or passed on to the next generation or group of species.
By the end of the Paleolithic period, early humans have been engaged in
proto-culture type of industries wherein they did not just create tools but
also started creating art and other symbolic materials. For the purposes of
our discussion, two industries shall be discussed: Aurignacian and
Magdalenian.
The Aurignacian Industry
This industry was mainly present in Europe and southwest Asia from 45
000 to 35 000 years ago. The term Aurignacian was derived from Aurignac,
an area in France where the evidence for this industry was found. Users of
this industry used raw materials such as flint, animal bones, and antlers. The
method they employed in creating tools such as fine blades was similar to
the one used in the Mousterian industry.
Apart from a more advanced toolmaking industry, what made this
industry a cultural milestone for the modern humans in Europe is their
development of self-awareness. This development was projected through
cave paintings and the fabrication of accessories such as figurines, bracelets,
and beads.
The cave paintings found in the El Castillo Cave in Cantabaria, Spain
provide us with a glimpse of the environment that the early humans lived in.
Most of the paintings are that of the animals that existed at that time.
Fig. 2.10.
Cave painting of a bison in El Castillo Cave
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.Org/wiki/Cave_painting#/media/File:AltamiraBison.jpg
Apart from the animal-themed figurines, archaeologists also unearthed
human-inspired figurines. Figure 2.11 shows the Venus of Schelklingen,
which is also called the Venus of Hohle Fels. This figurine was sculpted
from a woolly mammoth tusk. Emphasis was also made by the artisan on
several parts of the body such as the breasts and the hips. Scholars theorize
that this emphasis may be due to the importance of these parts in
childbearing or child-rearing.
Fig. 2.11.
The Venus of Hohle Fels
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus_of_Hohle_Fels#/media/File:Venus-ofSchelklingen.jpg
The earliest evidence of music appreciation was also related to this
period through the discovery of a bone flute in Hohle Fels, Germany.
Fig. 2.12.
The Hohle Fels bone flute
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.Org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Flauta_paleol%C3%A
Dtica.jpg
The Magdalenian Industry
This industry saw the end of the Paleolithic period as it transformed to
the Neolithic period. The industry was named after the La Madeleine site in
Dordogne, France. This industry, which is also a proto-culture used by the
early humans, was defined by several revolutionary advancements in
technology such as the creation of microliths from flint, bone, antler, and
ivory. Apart from functional tools which were at times beautified by artistic
engravings, the early humans during this period were engrossed in creating
figurines, personal adornments, and other forms of mobiliary art. A defining
method used in toolmaking during this period was the application of heat on
the material prior to the flaking process. This was done by casting the raw
material on fire, which allowed for a more precise cut upon flaking.
The creation of specialized weapons, such as barbed harpoons, is
evidence of the growing sophistication of the hunting skills and technology
of the early humans.
Fig. 2.13.
Barbed harpoons dated to 13 000 years ago
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flickr__Wikimedia_France_-_MDL.99.8.10.jpg/480px-Flickr_-_Wikimedia_France__MDL.99.8.10.jpg
Another cultural milestone for the users of this industry was the use of
temporary man-made shelters such as tents made of animal skin. Although
the use of rock shelters and caves were still predominant during this period,
the creation of tents allowed the early humans to be more mobile.
The technological development in this industry has allowed the early
humans to have more leisure time, as evidenced by their preoccupation with
decorative materials.
By 10 000 BCE, this industry has spread to parts of Europe including
contemporary territories such as Great Britain, Germany, Spain, and Poland.
Beyond Walls 2.1
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
You are a Paleolithic art exhibitor for a museum. With the goal of
promoting Paleolithic art to the general public, your task is to create a
brochure that will feature 10 of the most significant Paleolithic art
pieces. This brochure will contain a picture of the art and information
such as details of its discovery, associated meanings, and current
significance. Your teacher will function as the museum curator who will
rate your output based on quality of the brochure printing, organization,
accuracy, and creativity. This task can be done in groups.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How is percussion flaking essential to the Oldowan industry?
2. What distinguished the Aurignacian industry from the earlier
industries?
3. Why is the Magdalenian industry referred to as a proto-culture of
early humans?
Processes of Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution
In reference to cultural formation, the Paleolithic stage has provided the
bases for the development of complex human groups through the
establishment of culture. At this period, we must situate the early humans in
terms of their physical environment. This way, we understand the
succeeding adaptations that they made which revolutionized how the human
species have existed in this planet.
By the end of the Paleolithic period, Earth was getting warmer as the Ice
Age was already at its last stages. This implies that Earth's surface was
changing. The sea level was rising again as the polar caps were melting.
Land surface decreased as some parts became submerged in water. The
warm climate allowed for the blossoming of new plants and the extinction
of others. The same phenomenon was also seen among animals.
Early humans have always been dependent on the environment, which
made foraging (hunting and gathering) the primary mode of subsistence.
With the drastic changes in geography and food sources, early humans were
once again faced with the need to adapt new strategies to survive. It was in
this setting that the “Neolithic Revolution” (Childe, 1936) spread
throughout the planet.
The Neolithic Revolution
This period is characterized by a major shift in economic subsistence of
the early humans from foraging to agriculture. This dramatic shift affected
the other aspects of their lifestyle, as foraging made them nomads and
agriculture encouraged permanent settlement. This shift in itself changed the
entire array of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and corresponding material
inventions.
Table 2.1.
Characteristics of Paleolithic and Neolithic Societies
Characteristic
Paleolithic
Neolithic
Characteristic
Tools
Paleolithic
Neolithic
Small and handy for
Included a wider array of small
mobile lifestyle
and bigger tools due to
sedentary lifestyle
Personal properties
Limited to personal
Included structures (e.g.,
accessories and small tools
houses), decorative ornaments,
that could easily be carried
large containers
around
Art
Small and limited to
Included the creation of
personal ornaments, bigger
artworks that required a longer
artworks were done but not
length of time and a greater
within a long time frame
number of people (e.g.,
(e.g., cave paintings)
Stonehenge)
Subsistence
Foraging
Agriculture
Leadership
Not rigid; based on age and
Semirigid; based on legitimacy
knowledge
(religious beliefs, social status)
Social divisions
None; communal lifestyle
Elite vs. working class
Population size
Small (30–50 people)
Large (in thousands)
There are generally two perspectives on the impact of the Neolithic
revolution on human populations. Traditionally, it is being argued that with
the development of agriculture and technology, humans were able to
develop sociopolitically, as the existence of systematic food production has
resulted in food surplus that enabled members of the population to indulge
in self-actualizing activities such as the arts and politics. Opposing this
perspective, progressive scholars argue that the same phenomenon of
surplus production has had negative impacts on human populations such as
social divisions, high population density, and gender inequality.
Fig. 2.14.
Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England
Source:
http://cdn.playbuzz.com/cdn/f404a97c-5dd9-43b3-bc7f9f0b19b36ce9/7392bdac-72f3-4e2b-8746-dae6c02dce8e.jpg
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How is Paleolithic art different from Neolithic art? Identify five
differences.
2. What are the characteristics of Neolithic tools?
3. How did agriculture influence the course of development of human
populations?
Early Civilization and the Rise of the State
The earliest civilizations rose by the end of the Neolithic period as the
complexities brought about by the shift in food production demanded a
more rigid social structure that would manage the opposing perspectives of
various sectors. As conflicts between groups developed and intensified, the
need to create a more cohesive society became definite.
Early civilizations were characterized by the presence of city-states, a
system of writing, and a ceremonial center where public debates and
decision-making were conducted. However, it must be noted that not all
societies during this period could be considered as civilizations as not all
possessed a political system that could be equated to a state. A state is a
political entity that has four requisite elements: territory, sovereignty,
people, and government. These elements will be further discussed in
Module 5.
As to how states rose, there are four primary theories.
1. Divine right theory
Rulers ascended to power convinced that their right to rule is based
on their filial relationship with supernatural forces and entities. The
concept of the god-king that was upheld in the city of Sumer is an
example. People were made subjects to these monarchs, as the latter
were perceived by the former as direct descendants or representatives of
their gods.
2. Force theory
A group forces members of another group to subject themselves to
their rules. This was observed among the Mayans, as conflict over
access to rivers resulted in the subjugation of one group by another.
3. Paternalistic theory
The father essentially is the leader of the first political unit, which
grew as the number of the members of his family grew. This is true for
highly patriarchal, maledominated societies.
4. Social contract
The creation of a state was a mutual agreement between the ruler
and the ruled to ensure order and security from outside threats.
5. Natural theory
Humans have an innate need to be part of a community. The Greek
philosopher Aristotle described humans as “political animals,” as it is in
their nature to indulge in politics.
Democratization of Early Civilizations
The early states were governed by a limited few who ascended to power
through wealth, birth right, or religious dogma. This alienated the masses
from the daily administration of rules and regulations in their society. As a
result, the social cleavage in early civilizations widened and resulted in
social clashes.
The traditional view on the history of democracy highlights its
development among the city-states of ancient Greece, around 507 BCE. It is
believed that an Athenian statesman named Cleisthenes proposed
demokratia as a political ideology that aimed at dispersing power from the
monopoly of the elites to the masses. This allowed for the closing in of
social gaps between diverging social groups. Upon its introduction,
democracy in Greece was primarily about the inclusion of marginalized
sectors of the society in the day-to-day operations of the government. From
deciding on laws and implementing rules to deciding on court cases, the
masses were given direct access to decision-making activities in the state.
Although this narrowed the social gap between the rich and the poor, it
did not address other issues such as gender inequality and racism. The new
order allowed for the creation of a political identity and citizenship, which
was exclusively ascribed to men who were born in Greece by both Greek
parents. Hence, women and individuals with multicultural background were
not given a seat in decision-making activities.
A counter theory to the Greek or Western origins of the concept of
democracy was forwarded by Keane (2009), claiming that democracy was
first practiced in the Fertile Crescent region, specifically in the sacred city of
Nippur. This ancient city lies in the present territories of Iraq, Iran, and
Syria. The practice of democracy in this region started as early as the Old
Babylonian empire days (1 894 BCE). He further argued that the idea and
implementation of democracy could be traced to the Mycenaean settlements
of the Peloponnese region between 1 500 and 1 200 BCE. This time frame
provides a basis for his theory that democracy may have been initially
practiced in West Asia and spread to other societies.
Beyond Walls 2.2
Go Online
The Neolithic age is a defining moment in human history because of
the innovations that shifted the course of human societies. Here is a link
to an online quiz on the Neolithic age. After answering the quiz, take a
screen capture of your result, and show it to your teacher.
http://www.funtrivia.com/playquiz/quiz3736802ac6f88.html
The Legacy of Early Humans to Contemporary Population
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) is the primary transnational entity that manages and negotiates
matters relating to human heritage. It defined cultural heritage as follows:
Cultural heritage is not limited to material manifestations, such as monuments and
objects that have been preserved over time. This notion also encompasses living expressions
and the traditions that countless groups and communities worldwide have inherited from their
ancestors and transmit to their descendants, in most cases, orally (UNESCO, 2010).
This definition provides us with a two-part meaning of cultural heritage.
On one end, there is heritage being tangible in the form of structures,
monuments, historical sites, and other artifacts. On the other end, there is
heritage being intangible in the form of literature, oral traditions, concepts,
and values.
Tangible heritage could be divided into two categories: movable and
immovable. The primary difference in these two categories is the size of the
heritage. For example, the Stonehenge (Figure 2.14) is an immovable
tangible heritage, whereas the sarcophagus of the pharaoh Tutankhamun is a
movable tangible heritage.
Fig. 2.15.
Sarcophagus of King Tutankhamun
Source:
http://www.egyptreservation.com/assets/images/ehrc/tutankhamun.jpg
Movable tangible heritage pieces are often removed from the sites where
they were found and transferred to museums for safekeeping and
maintenance. Immovable tangible heritage pieces are often left to the
elements of nature (i.e., rain, wind, sand, sun), which makes them
vulnerable to decay and corrosion. This does not mean that conservation
efforts are not being made. However, due to the constant exposure of these
objects to these elements, conservation becomes more challenging.
The Role of Museums in Preserving Human Heritage
Museums are the repository of archaeological finds that allow people
from the contemporary period to reconstruct the culture and environment of
their ancestors. Unlike immovable tangible heritage objects that are left in
the archaeological sites where they have been found, movable tangible
heritage objects are often relocated to museums that have jurisdiction or at
times legitimacy in housing them.
Because history is encapsulated in a venue, which is the museum,
ordinary people get to have an access to their ancestors' lives and
environment without traveling to archaeological sites, which are often
highly inaccessible. In the 2010 Conference of the Museum Association,
new roles of the museums were identified, which include (1) fostering
community solidarity through shared history and (2) regeneration and
development of the local economy.
According to the National Geographic Society, the 10 most famous
museums with the biggest collection of artifacts and fossils are the
following:
1. Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, USA
2. Le Louvre in Paris, France
3. The Acropolis Museum in Athens, Greece
4. State Hermitage in St. Petersburg, Russia
5. The British Museum in London, UK
6. The Prado in Madrid, Spain
7. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, New York,
USA
8. The Vatican Museums in Vatican City
9. The Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy
10. Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the Netherlands
However, these world renowned museums are not without controversies.
For example, the British Museum has been questioned on the legitimacy of
its claims of stewardship of artifacts from Egypt such as the Rosetta Stone.
The Rosetta Stone is one of the most important archaeological finds in
Egypt, as it allowed for the translation of the then undecipherable Egyptian
hieroglyphics.
Fig. 2.16.
The Rosetta Stone
Source:
http://www.freemaninstitute.com/NSAmuseum-RosettaStone.jpg
Zahi Hawass, the head of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, have
been asserting the right of Egypt to reclaim several of its artifacts being the
rightful steward of these. However, the British Museum and other museums
that are being criticized for this issue have not yielded, asserting that these
artifacts were discovered by their citizens and are being excellently
maintained and protected in their establishments.
Big Idea
Material culture is as significant as the intangible parts of
culture in providing context to the kind of life that humans had.
In the Philippines, the key museum that houses most of the country's
highly valuable artifacts is the National Museum. There are local museums
in the country that were built by local governments to address the need of
preserving local history and traditions.
Extend Your Knowledge
A key issue that cultural heritage faces is the loss of artifacts and
fossils due to activities such as treasure hunting, which is predicated by
individuals and organizations who have a high interest in collecting
historical items. This link will lead you to the story of Apo Anno, a stolen
mummy from Nabalicong Village in Benguet:
http://www.aparchive.com/metadata/youtube/701834dff73771a
1b8b1b7fd1ea123c5
Essentiol Learning
Contemporary human populations stand in stark contrast from our
ancestors both in biological and cultural characteristics. From strict
dependence on the environment for food and survival, we have now
learned to manipulate it to produce things that we need. By studying the
past, we were able to understand the trajectory of our species, as we
combated through technology and social dynamics the harsh elements
posed by our environment. A keen protection of the proofs of our past is
needed to ensure that the next generations of humans will have the same
privilege of knowing the process of our development as a species.
Module
3
Anthropology and the Study of
Culture
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology.
2. Explain anthropological perspectives on culture.
3. Describe culture as a complex whole.
4. Identify aspects of culture and society.
5. Raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and
societies.
6. Recognize the value of anthropology for the 21st century.
Introduction to Anthropology
Humans studying humans. This is the field of anthropology. Unlike
other disciplines of the social sciences, anthropology promotes a holistic
study of humans. Derived from two Greek words antropos (human) and
logos (study), anthropology seeks to answer this primary question: What
does it mean to be human? This allows for an extensive and inclusive
approach such that anthropology studies humans as both biological and
social creatures. Biologically, it inquires on the genetic composition of
humans, their relationship with other primates, and their evolution. Socially,
it inquires on human behaviors, attitudes, and belief systems, which range
from birth practices to burial rites.
Another key element that makes anthropology holistic is its research
time frame, which ranges from the evolution of humans as a species to our
current development. It also studies humans from various ethnic groupings
and geographic locations.
As such, anthropology can be defined as “the study of people—their
origins, their development, and contemporary variations, wherever and
whenever they have been found on the face of the earth” (Ember, Ember,
and Peregrine, 2010).
These points of inquiry are addressed by the five subdisciplines of
anthropology: archaeological, cultural, linguistic, physical, and applied.
•
•
•
•
•
Archaeology examines the remains of ancient and historical human
populations to promote an understanding of how humans have
adapted to their environment and developed.
Cultural anthropology promotes the study of a society's culture
through their belief systems, practices, and possessions.
Linguistic anthropology examines the language of a group of people
and its relation to their culture.
Physical anthropology looks into the biological development of
humans and their contemporary variation.
Applied anthropology attempts to solve contemporary problems
through the application of theories and approaches of the discipline.
During the 19th century, anthropologists, who were often from western
societies, would investigate on the system of beliefs, behavior, and material
possessions of non-western, preliterate, and technologically simple
societies. One of the classic studies in anthropology, Tristes Tropiques (a
memoir), was made by Claude Levi-Strauss, a French anthropologist. This
work presented the lives of a non-modern society in Brazil, India, and the
Caribbean.
Fig. 3.1.
Levi-Strauss while in the field
Source:
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_dWq5ZrdU1_l/RoiD3oQEVkl/AAAAAAAAASI/MGJ
wyZPOjxl/s320/omslag.jpg
In the advent of the 21st century, human experiences diversified. As
globalization's effects were felt in almost all societies, anthropology
extended its study to cultural and subcultural groups in industrialized
societies. Issues that were once the turf of other disciplines like deviance
and social organization were studied by anthropologists. Nancy ScheperHughes, a professor of anthropology at University of California-Berkeley,
studied the lives of survivors of organ trafficking in Brazil.
In both studies, the methodology used in gathering information was
crucial. Anthropologists need to establish rapport with their host societies
before they can extract the life stories of people. This is important as people
would not usually discuss personal matters to a stranger. After a significant
amount of time, when the key informant is already accustomed to the
presence of the anthropologist, questions could now be asked. Key
informants are individuals in a society who have significant knowledge on
the topic being studied by the anthropologist.
Apart from interviews, anthropologists also use the participantobservation method. This method entails the participation of the researcher
on the daily practices and rituals of the group being studied. In the cases of
Levi-Strauss and Scheper-Hughes, both anthropologists stayed in the field
for more than two years and lived in the communities that they were
documenting.
Fig 3.2.
Nancy Scheper-Hughes, with an organ seller in Brazil
Source:
http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/04/28/celebrating-barefoot-anthropologynancy-scheper-hughes/
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How is anthropology different from other disciplines of social
science?
2. What elements make anthropology a holistic discipline?
3. What are the methods involved in anthropological research?
Culture
You have always heard the word culture being used in conversations. At
times, it refers to something ethnic; some people think of it as an allencompassing term that separates humans from the rest of the animal
kingdom. But what is it exactly?
Culture is everything that a person learns as a member of a society. The
three italicized words are important in understanding the concept of culture
better.
Culture is everything. It is what a person has, does, and thinks as part
of society. This implies all of a person's belief system, set of behaviors, and
material possessions. As such, it can be said that culture is a powerful agent
in shaping the decisions and actions of humans, given a situation. It consists
of the material and the nonmaterial.
Material culture includes all the tangible and visible parts of culture,
which include clothes, food, and even buildings. The types of material
culture present in societies differ, as each society is configured by its
environment and history. For example, the culinary culture of the
Philippines is different from even that of its neighbors in Asia such as
Japan; the difference lies in the availability of the ingredients in these areas.
Presently, the difference in material culture is becoming less visible due to
globalization. The gadgets that are produced in the United States become
part of the Philippines through trade.
Big Idea
Culture is a material and cognitive survival tool for humans
as they address the limits of their environment.
Nonmaterial culture includes all the intangible parts of culture, which
consist of values, ideas, and knowledge. Just like material culture, the belief
and values systems of societies differ from one another based on their
environment and history. Values are concepts that are culturally determined;
it separates what is acceptable from that which is taboo. On the other hand,
beliefs are culturally approved truths that deal with the specific parts of
human life. For example, the belief in the phrase bahala na, which was
derived from the older phrase bathala na, supports the religious values
system that is present in the society.
Culture is learned. Culture is a set of beliefs, attitudes, and practices
that an individual learns through his or her family, school, church, and other
social institutions. The process of learning your own culture is called
enculturation. As you interact with your immediate family and peers, you
learn the values and accepted behaviors in your society. Due to constant
interaction between societies, culture can be modified to accommodate
desirable traits from other cultures. This process is called acculturation.
Music may be one of the most transferred forms of culture from one society
to another. For example, the inclination of some Filipinos toward some
elements of Korean culture has led to the acceptance of Korean pop songs
despite being performed in a foreign language.
When the culture of the older generation comes into conflict with the
needs and realities of the younger generation, deculturation happens, where
the reason for the culture has been lost and even the cultural trait itself is in
the process of being forgotten.
For example, the tradition in Japan that imposes immense obligation of
the firstborn child to be the model child for his or her siblings has been
found as an instigator of two phenomena: high child suicide rate and high
educational attainment rate among adolescents. These phenomena came to
place when the tradition of having a model child clashed with the reality that
most couples produce only one child. This propelled the children to work as
hard as an eldest child but without the privileges of being one, as they have
no siblings (Miermont, 1995).
Reflect Upon
Today's young people have been branded as the “millennials” and
members of “Generation Z” (or simply “Gen Z”) by scholars and other
popular culture observers. You and your classmates belong to Gen Z.
Using a triple Venn diagram, show how your generation's supposed
characteristics are different from those of millennials and members of
Generation X (your parents). As the diagram demands, you must also
write the commonalities that your generation shares with millennials and
members of Gen X.
Culture is shared. The set of behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that a
person possesses is part of a greater collection of values and ideas that is
communally owned and practiced by members of a society. This implies
that a particular behavior cannot be considered as a culture if there is only
one person practicing it. Culture is shared intergenerationally. Hence, to
share a culture, it must be taught to members of contemporary society who
will, in turn, teach the younger generation.
Figure 3.3 presents the process by which the culture of an individual is
formed. As you can see, the individual combines the culture that his or her
parents teach him or her with the culture that he or she experiences from
other societies. As such, a Filipino living in another country would have a
set of knowledge and behaviors that corresponds to the combined culture of
his or her parents and that of the adopted society.
Fig. 3.3.
Diagram on culture formation
Culture affects biology. Humans are born into cultures that have values
on beauty and body. As such, they alter their bodies to fit into the
physiological norms that are dictated by culture. Among the Mursi tribe of
Ethiopia in Africa, wearing lip plates is a sign of beauty. Women are the
ones who are expected to wear them to appear desirable to men.
Fig. 3.4.
Lip plate as worn by a Mursi woman
Source:
https://Lwarosu.org/data/ic/img/0022/67/1446238679318.jpg
One of the most popular traditions in China is that of foot binding
among women that ensures their potential for good marriage. These women
are subjected to decades of physical alteration that involves the restructuring
of their feet to achieve “lotus feet,” which has the ideal length of about 7.5
centimeters (3 inches). The process begins at childhood when young
females' feet are bound and broken so as to hamper further growth. In
Figure 3.5 you can see that the foot of the old woman is severely disfigured.
This disfigurement renders women who underwent the procedure crippled
and unable to participate in many social events of their communities.
Fig. 3.5.
Lotus feet in China
Source:
http://cdn.lolwot.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/20-fashion-trends-thatkilled-and-maimed-people-4.jpg
The interaction between human physiology and culture is not unilateral.
As culture affects the physical traits of a person, culture can also be defined
by the normative physical characteristics of humans. This can easily be seen
in the material culture of a society. The designs of machines and other forms
of material culture are based on the physical traits of a given population. For
example, the trains that are used in our country's Metro Rail Transit (MRT)
are not completely appropriate for the average Filipino physique because the
hand rails are too high. The concept of space also varies per culture given
the size of the inhabitants of such space.
Beyond Walls 3.1
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Arts and Design
Students have consistently been complaining of the
inappropriateness of their uniforms to the weather conditions of our
country. Some have argued that their uniforms, though very fashionable,
are not comfortable especially during hot and humid days.
Because you are a clothing designer, you have been tasked to
develop a set of uniforms for males and females that are conducive to
the weather conditions of our country. You know that some schools have
more than one set of uniforms because of the various activities that the
students engage in. So come up with at least three designs that have
different functions.
Draw your designs on sheets of bond paper and compile them in a
portfolio. You should also write a brief explanation of of the features of
each design. Your teacher will evaluate your designs based on creativity,
feasibility or practicality, and weather adaptability. This activity can be
done in groups.
Culture is adaptive. Culture is a tool for survival that humans use in
response to the pressures of their environment. Both the material and the
nonmaterial parts of culture are influenced by the goal of humans to address
their needs as dictated by their environment and their biology. The Inuits of
the Arctic region are well-known for building igloos during fishing and
hunting expeditions. These dome-shaped homes provide temporary shelter
for the mobile group. During summer, they use tupiqs, which are tents made
of animal skin, as their temporary homes.
Fig. 3.6.
Inuit man beside an igloo (left) and a tupiq (right)
Another adaptive mechanism that is practiced in most cultures is the
creation of food taboos. These are the socially constructed and accepted
prohibitions on the consumption of several food items. Among the Muslims,
the consumption of pork is not allowed, so cattle is one of their primary
sources of meat. In India, on the other hand, cows are venerated, so
consuming beef is considered taboo. According to Marvin Harris, these
taboos are responses to the environmental pressures on food supply in these
areas. For example, the taboo on the consumption of cows in India is rooted
on the heavy drought that the country experienced which made eating the
cow impractical as this animal is low-maintenance (eats grass and not
human food), works the farm, and is a sustainable supply of milk. Hence, to
consume cows instead of other animals would be illogical.
Culture is maladaptive. Culture can also cause problems for the people
who subscribe to it. These problems arise when the environment has
changed and culture has remained the same. For example, the “car culture”
present in most societies is getting maladaptive as the environment gets
more polluted. In the Philippines, the car industry remains active despite the
economic turmoil it faces as a developing country. This culture is highly
maladaptive given that roads for vehicles are not wide enough. As such,
traffic problems are constant in the country. However, Filipinos appreciate
the value of having cars in the performance of their economic and personal
functions, not to mention the feeling of prestige and sense of
accomplishment that a car brings to its owner. Thus, although considered as
somewhat maladaptive, car ownership is still very much popular in the
Philippines.
Fig. 3.7.
Traffic congestion in EDSA
Source:
http://maxtein.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/manila_traffic.gif
Culture changes. The final characteristic of culture is that it is never
static. This dynamism of culture is due to the changing needs of humans as
they interpret and survive in their environment. As such, culture is
continuously reinvented by people. From the clothes that we wear to the
food that we eat, culture can be seen as ever changing.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. Why is culture a tool for survival?
2. How can culture pose a threat to the survival of its practitioners?
3. How can culture affect one's body?
Theories on Culture
Theories are established perspectives that are essential in shaping an
analysis about a particular issue. In the field of anthropology, one of the key
points of discussion is the concept of culture. The following table presents
seven theoretical orientations in anthropology and the ideas on culture that
they espouse.
Table 3.1.
Comparison of Theories on Culture
Theory
Cultural evolutionism
Perspective on Culture
All cultures undergo the same development stages in the same
order. The main classifications include savagery, barbarism, and
civilization.
Diffusionism
All societies change as a result of cultural borrowing from one
another.
Historicism
Each culture is unique and must be studied in its own context.
Psychological
Personality is largely seen to be the result of learning culture.
anthropology
Functionalism
Society is thought to be like a biological organism with all of the
parts interconnected. Existing institutional structures of any society
are thought to perform indispensable functions, without which the
society could not continue.
Neo-evolutionism
Culture is said to be shaped by environmental and technological
conditions. Cultures evolve when people are able to increase the
amount of energy under their control.
Materialism
Culture is the product of the “material conditions” in which a given
community of people finds itself.
Note:
Definitions on the perspective on culture for each theory are directly lifted from
Ferraro and Andreatta (2010).
Anthropology in the 21st Century
The key strength of anthropology as a discipline of the social science is
its holistic approach to the study of humans. It is holistic in the sense that it
studies (1) humans, both as biological and social creatures; (2) human
behavior from the time the species existed to the time that it will desist; (3)
human behavior from all regions of the world; and (4) all forms of human
actions and beliefs. Such lens in understanding the human species allows
anthropology to provide a comprehensive insight into the nature of humans
and the trajectory of their behaviors.
The discipline's arm in the applied sciences addresses the contemporary
issues of a globalizing world and informs public policy. For example,
ethnographic research on social issues provides international organizations
and governments with key indicators for policy reforms and
implementation.
With the discipline's engagement with the ordinary and the mundane
parts of human interaction, anthropology provides a degree of keenness to
its learner such that everyday things are contextualized and understood
within the frame of culture. This develops acuity among students of
anthropology.
Extend Your Knowledge
There is a growing distribution of alternative facts and the rise of
extremist beliefs that divide society. Thus, anthropology plays a crucial
role in lending the public its “lens” of critical analysis. This link will lead
you to an article that discusses the role of anthropology in today's world
as a source of social critique:
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/653127
After reading this, write a 500-word essay on how you can use the
“lens” of anthropology to address a social issue that our country is facing
today.
Essential Learning
The field of anthropology has started as a field of inquiry on the
difference between western societies and those that are technologically
simple. However, through the continuous study of the variance of human
populations and their cultures, anthropology transitioned into a tool for
social critique in contemporary societies. Culture, being the prime unit of
analysis in anthropology, has been observed as possessing universal traits
— adaptive, communal, and holistic, to name a few. An understanding of
cultural variation allows for a more inclusive and accepting approach in
societies and their members.
Module
4
Sociology and the Study of Society
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of sociology.
2. Describe society as a complex whole.
3. Identify aspects of culture and society.
4. Raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of societies.
5. Recognize the value of sociology for the 21st century.
6. Explain sociological perspectives on culture and society.
The Sociological Perspective
Another branch of the social sciences is the discipline of sociology.
Categorically, sociology is the “scientific study of society, including patterns
of social relationships, social interaction, and culture” (Calhoune, 2002).
The operative term scientific refers to the methodological and theoretical
rigor that sociology applies in its study of society and human behavior. The
term sociology was coined by Auguste Compte in 1830 to refer to a
scientific inquiry that covers human social activities. The inclination toward
the use of common sense in understanding human populations and their
activities was challenged by the more accurate and tested conclusions
provided by the sociological perspective.
In 1959, C. Wright Mills coined the phrase “sociological imagination” to
refer to the ability of sociologist to understand society systematically. This
ability involves the process of detaching oneself from the common
understanding of society and creates an alternative approach that would
situate a behavior or an event within a great social framework. Mills further
argued that this imagination could be the conceptual tool by which people
could unpack the maladies of their society and address them.
Big Idea
Sociology is a cognitive tool to understand society,
institutions, and their impact on human behavior.
The clamor for social understanding due to the rapid changes in social
and economic structures brought upon by the French and Industrial
Revolutions in Europe cemented the prominence of sociological perspective
in the field of social sciences.
Beyond Walls 4.1
Read and Answer
The Industrial Revolution has been one of the primary catalysts for
the institution of sociology as a social science discipline. Here's a link to
a summary of the Industrial Revolution written for the Encyclopedia
Britannica:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution
After reading the article, answer the following questions:
1. What is the Industrial Revolution?
2. What are the main features of the Industrial Revolution?
3. What are the parallelisms of the first and the second Industrial
Revolutions?
Sociological Concepts
Just like anthropology, sociology also has discipline-based concepts that
aid in the understanding of human behavior and groups. The basic concept
that sociology interprets is that of society.
Society
Society can be defined as a product of human interactions as humans
subscribe to the rules of their culture. It is an organization that caters to a
human's need for belongingness in a group. The following table presents the
varying understanding of society as prescribed by sociologists.
Table 4.1.
Comparison of Theories on Society
Sociologist
August Comte
Perspective on Society
Society as a social organism possessing a harmony of structure and
function.
Emile Durkheim
Society as a reality in its own right. Collective consciousness is of
key importance to society, which society cannot survive without.
Talcott Parsons
Society is a total complex of human relationships in so far as they
grow out of the action in terms of means-end relationship.
George Herbert Mead
Society is an exchange of gestures that involves the use of symbols.
Morris Ginsberg
Society as a collection of individuals united by certain relations or
mode of behavior that marks individuals off from others who do not
enter into these relations or who differ from them in behavior.
George Douglas Cole
Society as the complex of organized associations and institutions
with a community.
Robert Maclver and
Society as a system of usages and procedures of authority and
Charles Page
mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human
behavior and liberties.
Source:
Shandra (2007)
Notice that the common terms that surfaced in these definitions are the
following: social, structure, function, complex, collective, relationships,
symbols, exchange, behavior, institutions, and system.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What is a common theme in all the definitions of “society”?
What are the historical contexts that paved for the development of
sociology?
3. How does the “sociological imagination” frame our understanding
of society?
2.
Reflect Upon
When people talk about Filipino society, the common themes that are
usually associated with it are (1) Filipino hospitality and (2) Filipino
cheerfulness. With the ever increasing globalization, we can assume that
Filipino society today would not be the same for the next generation.
Through a collage, present how you envision 21st century Filipino
society.
Social Interaction
Within the framework of society is a process called social interaction.
This is a compilation of ways and means by which humans interact with
each other within the confines of a society. Hence, the prevailing culture
within a society dictates the forms of interaction used by individuals with
one another.
Interaction is not merely defined by an actual physical contact, as it
covers every human interchange that is within a mutually subjective
orientation. This implies that as long as the parties involved are aware of
each other, interaction is possible.
Fig.4.1.
Filipino protesters facing the anti-riot police force in front of the US Embassy
Source:
http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/10/19/1635234/pnp-looking-violentdispersal-outside-us-embassy
In a public protest such as shown in Figure 4.1, there are layers of social
interaction transpiring simultaneously. First, there is the dialogue among
protesters about their stand regarding the issue. Second, there is the dialogue
between the protesters and the government representatives (police and
politicians). Third, there is the dialogue among the protesters, the police, the
politicians, and the media. Finally, there is the interaction between the
protesters and the US government. In all these layers, several points can be
made about social interaction:
1. Space is not an issue. The protesters who are making a dialogue with
the US government are separated from it by about 3 000 kilometers.
2. There could be multiple and simultaneous interactions. An
interaction could be participated in by at least two parties or by tens
of thousands. Each party could be engaged in multiple interactions
with other parties.
3. A dialogue could have an active and inactive end. In the social
interaction between the protesters and the US government, note that
the US government did not respond to the demands and statements
made by the other party. Nevertheless, despite the silence of the
other party, such an encounter is still considered as a social
interaction.
4. Subject-positionality is present in any interaction. The responses (or
the nonresponses) that individuals make in relation to an interaction
is determined by his or her perception of his or her position in
relation to the other party. It is therefore understandable that the US
government did not respond to the protesters. It did not negotiate
with them because they are not of the same position.
5. The meanings we ascribe to the actions of others are informed by the
values and norms that are upheld in our society. The protesters were
moved to action due to the US government's critical stance against
President Duterte, who is being accused of sponsoring extrajudicial
killings.
Social Organization
This concept refers to the interrelationship of parts of society. As a
society is an organization in itself, it is structurally divided into layers of
contexts and positions that help perpetuate its existence. The positions
created within a society constitute the category of status. This may include
being a student, a son, and a parent.
Each status prescribes a set of accepted behaviors that define the
individual's responses and inclinations. This set is called roles. The role of a
government official is to ensure that the people's needs are addressed
through government projects and policies. If the government official fails to
perform this role, then a conflict occurs as the norm was not followed. In
some instances in our country, government officials were evicted from their
positions (statuses) as they failed to perform the roles expected of them.
A group is a basic unit of an organization. It involves at least two
individuals who are in constant interaction based on their statuses and roles.
Your school typically consists of two groups: teachers and students. You
interact with your teachers based on your role as a student. Hence, your
manner of speaking and the content of your statements are different when
you are interacting with your classmates from when you interact with your
teachers.
Institutions are established when roles, statuses, and groups are
perpetuated within the context of a society. Institutions are the building
blocks of a society, as it is through these that norms are produced from the
consistent exchanges of individuals and groups. These institutions are also
in constant recreation as human interactions are affected by external forces
such as environmental shifts. Family, marriage, education, religion, and
government are all examples of institutions. To be more specific, the
concept of a parent and a child (family) is well-established as an institution
in the Philippines. As such, activities that do not conform to the prescribed
behavior of individuals toward the creation of a family are frowned upon by
society. These activities include abortion, separation of spouses, and
extramarital affairs.
Social Structure and Agency
This is the foundation of every society from which emanates the
possible roles, statuses, institutions, and organizations. It can be said that
social structure is the determining factor by which every other part of a
society gains its context. The common analogy used to describe social
structure and the elements of society is that of a building. The building in
itself can be considered as the society. The pillars and foundation of the
building is equated to the social structure. Remember that these parts
provide the general framework of the building—these determine its height,
width, and shape. What provides the building with its design and body are
the institutions, statuses, groups, and roles. The concept of culture can be
equated to the concept of social structure as it functions in the same
capacity. This is to say that culture defines the norms, values, institutions,
groups, and individual behavior within a society.
Note that this perspective renders individuals to be incapable of
asserting themselves in a society, as they are bound by the rules of its
structure or, in this context, their culture. A divergent perspective to this
accommodates the concept of agency.
According to Inden (2000), agency is
the realized capacity of people to act upon their world and not only to know about or give
personal or intersubjective significance to it…. the power of people to act purposively and
reflectively, in more or less complex relationships with one another, to reiterate and remake
the world in which they live, in circumstances where they may consider different courses of
action possible and desirable, though not necessarily from the same point of view.
This definition provides the argument that though structures in place
define the conditions in which an individual interacts with others and
institutions, the individual is capable of “remaking the world.” Individuals
are capable of creating new systems and patterns of interaction. In the
exercise of agency, humans can be either the catalyst of change or the
instruments by which such change is played. As such, agency should be
treated as an active word—it constitutes actions that are intended to instigate
action from institutions that would alter social structures. Moore (2007)
argues this, saying the following:
Agency is defined as individuals or groups reflecting, acting, modifying, and giving
significance to the teaching of science in purposeful ways, with the aim of empowering and
transforming themselves and/or the conditions of their lives … Thus agency is actionoriented …
Reflect Upon
With a partner, discuss how you are able to negotiate with people in
authority the things or activities that you like which they forbid. On a
sheet of paper, write the following: the person(s), the activities that they
dislike, the types of negotiations that you would take, and the expected
results.
Subdisciplines of Sociology
Within the field of sociology are specific inquiries on human behavior in
groups. Studies that involve social structures such as institutions, social
groups, social stratification, social mobility, and ethnic groups fall within
the scope of social organization. The study of the impact of group life to a
person's nature and personality is the focus of social psychology. Social
change and disorganization is the branch of sociology that inquires on the
shift in social and cultural interactions and the interruption of its process
through delinquency, deviance, and conflicts. Human ecology pursues
studies that relate human behavior to existing social institutions. This is
different from social psychology and social organization in that the social
institutions in which human subjects belong to are treated in the context of
an ecological/environmental element that defines human behavior.
Population or demography inquires on the interrelationship between
population characteristics and dynamics with that of a political, economic,
and social system. Applied sociology uses sociological research and
methods to solve contemporary problems. It often uses an interdisciplinary
approach to better address social problems.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the components of a social organization?
2. What are the elements of social interaction?
3. How is the concept of agency related to structures and individual
negotiations?
Methods in Sociology
There are two primary methodological perspectives in sociology:
positivist and the anti-positivist. The positivist orientation perceives society
as a quantifiable subject from which objective conclusions can be made. As
such, a positivist perspective uses methods employed by the natural sciences
to understand social phenomenon. It was Auguste Compte who introduced
this perspective taking into consideration that society is like an organism
that could be measured through logic and mathematics. As this orientation is
predisposed to statistical analysis, quantitative methods such as surveys are
employed by sociologists to map a social phenomenon. The relationships of
the variables of the topics are tested through formulas of correlation,
regression, and the like. It is assumed that by statistically understanding the
phenomenon, its future trajectory can be predicted and addressed efficiently.
This type of orientation allows for a macro-level analysis of society.
An example of a work that uses positivism is that of Durkheim (1951)
on suicide, wherein he identified four types of suicide that are triggered by
the type of society that one is living in.
Fig.4.2.
Durkheim's schema on suicide
According to Durkheim (1951), individuals who fall into the extremes
of their society are bound to commit suicide. For example, a person who
lives in a society that promotes strong ties among its members is prone to
commit altruistic suicide as an act of preserving it. The Japanese kamikaze
pilots purposively crashed their planes into American ships and land-based
targets to inflict heavy casualty on the Americans. Their actions were an
ultimate sacrifice and contribution to their country's campaign in World War
II.
Fig.4.3.
Japanese women showing gratitude and support for kamikaze pilots
Source:
https://chuvadenanquim.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/kamikaze.jpg
On the opposite end, being part of societies that do not foster strong ties
among its members can trigger an individual to commit egoistic suicide
wherein the individual feels isolated, having no sense of a community.
The third type of suicide is anomic, which results from living in a
society with no rules. This context propels an individual to commit suicide
as he or she experiences moral and existential crisis based on the
unavailability of guiding principles through which life can be lived. The
death of several popular culture icons have been attributed to this form of
suicide, as they have experienced the complexity of the popularity that
rendered them objects of consumers instead of living persons.
Finally, there is fatalistic suicide, which is experienced in societies that
have many rules. Individuals who fail to comply with the rules of their
society experience shame and disappointment, which brings them to this
fatal decision. In 2007, the National Police Agency of Japan declared that
suicide rates among adolescents reached its highest rate since 1978. The
agency identified underperformance in school as the primary cause of
suicide among members of this sector (Japan Times, 2007). The traditional
culture of setting examples to siblings through high performance among
firstborn children has been passed on to an only-child generation. This
culture forced every single child to be competitive in school to please his or
her parents. Failure to live up to this standard has triggered countless
suicides among Japanese youth.
Reflect Upon
Search online for the interrelationships among the four types of
suicides. How does one type influence the others?
Coming from a positivist orientation, Durkheim argues that suicide can
be prevented, as it is not a matter of personal choice but is actually a product
of social realities which can be altered to counter its effect. This schema on
suicide can be applied in understanding all kinds of society, hence the macro
level theorizing that positivism can only provide.
Alternately, the anti-positivist orientation promotes a subjective
approach wherein social phenomena are understood through individual
experiences. With this, it counters the positivist assumption that general
laws can be made to understand human behavior. Such orientation requires
qualitative methods in gathering data such as interviews, participantobservations, and other tools of ethnography.
The work on suicide by Pearson and Lui (2011) presents the suicide of a
village woman in China named Ling. China is reported to have high
incidences of suicide, especially among females in rural areas (WHO,
2009). Using ethnographic process, Pearson and Lui concluded that the
typical Western orientation toward suicide, which focuses on depression and
other mental health-related factors, are not in the same operation among
rural Chinese women, as their suicide act is triggered by social and
economic structural conditions. Through the life of Ling, the authors saw
that women's status in society, which generally renders them powerless and
voiceless, leads them to choose suicide as a form of either a statement or an
escape. They also noted that, unlike the suicide cases in the West that is
defined by depression and long-term mental illness, suicide in rural China
was more spontaneous, as individuals thought about the act a few hours or,
at times, minutes prior to committing it.
Unlike the work of Durkheim that has a potential for general application
in understanding suicide phenomena across geographic regions, the work of
Pearson and Lui remains to be applicable to the case of Ling's society. This
situates anti-positivist works within the micro level of analysis.
Beyond Walls 4.2
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
You are a youth sociologist who specializes in new forms of dating
among the younger generation (i.e., ages 15 to 24). A senior high school
has invited you to deliver a talk on the topic and specifically requested
that you provide an argument and proposal in addressing the youth's
vulnerability to sexually transmitted diseases and teenage pregnancy.
Your talk is expected to be 10 minutes long and supplemented with
visual aids. Your teacher will rate your talk based on the clarity of your
arguments, the strength of your data, the effectiveness of your visual
aids, and your ability to relate to your audience.
Value of Sociology for the 21st Century
Sociology was established at a time when society was changing
drastically due to technological and political developments. Contemporary
society is constantly facing reality-altering developments not just in
technology but also in its environment as brought about by climate change.
Sociology finds its value today in providing us with a conceptual tool in
understanding the plight of humans as they adapt to their varying
environments and social conditions. Through the scientific analyses of
social phenomena, sociology provides policy makers with concrete bases for
decisions that affect human population and alter their social landscape.
Big Idea
Sociology has the capacity of informing a society's trajectory
through research-based policy-making.
One of the pressing sociological issues in the Philippines is the case of
unemployed youth who are in the process of waithood. These youth are
called tambay. Clarence Batan, a sociologist studying the youth, conducted
a sociological study of tambay in a marginalized town of Talim in the
province of Rizal. Using methods such as ethnography and interviews, he
found out that most of the youth have employment aspirations; due to their
marginalization, however, they are disenfranchised from the labor system
that requires a set of employee attributes. Some remain to be a tambay for as
long as five years. He further argued that such experiences perpetuate a web
of crises that promote intergenerational poverty and marginalization.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the two orientations on the study of society?
2. How did Durkheim explain suicide?
3. How does sociology
contemporary issues?
contribute
to
the
understanding
of
With the advent of social media such as Facebook and Twitter, the
interrelationships among humans have been redefined. What follows is a
reading analyzing the phenomenon of selfies within the platform of social
media.
Extend Your Knowledge
Go to http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2015/08/tinder-hook-upculture-end-of-dating to read an article titled “Tinder and the Dawn of the
Dating Apocalypse” by Nancy Jo Sales published by the magazine Vanity
Fair. After reading the article, write a reflection paper that addresses the
theme “Dating among Filipinos.” In writing your essay, incorporate the
concepts discussed in this module.
Essential Learning
From the early conception of sociology in the 19th century to its
application today in the 21st century, the discipline has remained as a
cognitive tool to understand the interrelationship between the individual
and his or her society. With the methods that render the field as a
scientific process of inquiry, sociology provides systematic analysis of
various social phenomena.
Module
5
Political Science and the Study of
Politics
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of political science.
2. Discuss the concept of power as an aspired value in a society.
(Enrichment)
3. Recognize the value of political science in the 21st century.
(Enrichment)
Political Science as a Discipline
What is the difference between a political scientist and a common
individual in discussing the efficiency of government projects? The layman
interprets the actions of the government based on his or her experience of it
while the political scientist uses the rigor of scientific inquiry to evaluate the
performance of the government.
Political science comes from two Greek words: polis and scire. Polis
refers to the city-state in ancient Greece. The political activities within a
polis are later termed as politikus (Latin). Scire means “to know.”
Combining the two meanings, political science aims to know the activities
within the state. Such activities include the following: human interaction
and conflict, human and state relations, and power distribution.
The American Political Science Association defined its discipline as
“the study of governments, public policies and political processes, systems,
and political behavior” (2013). These topics are covered by the
subdisciplines of political science such as political theory, comparative
politics, international relations, political behavior, public policy, and public
administration.
Political Theory
Political theory examines the contemporary application of political
concepts such as human rights, equality, peace, and justice. It seeks to
address the variance of its implementation in societies with the aim of
understanding the nature of these concepts and the elements that affect it.
This field is significant in furthering theory building in the discipline as
much as it provides a conceptual critique of commonly held concepts. For
example, the Global North concept of justice is not universal. In some
societies in the Global South, conflicts are not resolved by meting justice in
the context of punishment but in the form of reconciliation of parties.
Comparative Politics
Comparative politics is a branch of political science that aims to provide
context to the differences in government and political systems. It examines
the parallelism and divergence of political systems to provide analyses on
the factors that make governments efficient and the factors that make them
fail. This field provides a scientific comparison of governments and political
institutions that could help aid policy formulation that is locally relevant.
For example, the practice of democracy in the most members of the Global
North is oftentimes different from how it is practiced in democratized
countries of the Global South as it is embedded in local political culture.
Hence, campaigns for the democratization of all societies may be perilous
for some, whose local culture is at odds with the framework of democracy.
International Relations
The study of state-to-state relations and the wider margin of the impacts
of globalization and climate change such as terrorism, piracy, and
democratization of non-Western territories fall into the category of
international relations. This field also covers the interaction between states
and non-state global actors such as international organizations and human
groups. The case of China and Philippines on the Scarborough Shoal is an
example of an internal relations issue in the Philippines as much as the 9/11
attacks on the World Trade Center that spawned transnational campaign of
the United States against terrorism.
Through this field, an understanding of the motivations of global actors
is made possible, and this understanding provides a basis for political
decisions of the parties involved. In the case of the campaign against
terrorism, a country that aims to win the favor of the United States ought to
rally behind this campaign and dissociate with blacklisted countries or
political actors.
Political Behavior
This field covers the attitudes, knowledge, and actions of an individual
in response to political variables such as policies created by the government,
behavior of politicians, and general political environment. Works on the
political action repertoire of individuals are categorized under this field as it
examines their psychology toward the system. These types of studies are
important for drafting election campaigns and gauging the electorates'
inclination to support a policy.
The political orientation of Filipinos toward elections is a subject of this
inquiry. Political commentaries have highlighted the fanfare that is the
Philippine elections, from the savvy campaign materials to unabashed
promotion of every political activity and public service made by the
candidates. The presence of political dynasties is also enabled by the
political culture of the country. In the Philippines, where political
affiliations are mostly due to not political parties but on personalities, the
costs and benefits of a political action are always administered from a
personality to his or her supporters/detractors. According to Alfred McCoy,
an American political scientist, the Philippines has strong families that have
political influence in regions of the country, allowing for the perpetuation of
political dynasties.
Public Policy
This field inquires on the types of governmental policies and the
underlying motivations for their enactment and implementation. Due to the
nature of this field, it operates with other subdisciplines to create a
comprehensive analysis. The general perspective that policies are created to
better the living conditions within a territory is at times inaccurate, as
political actors behind policy-making are also motivated by personal
interests.
This discipline is significant for evaluating the efficiency of enacted
policies and the possible revisions that it can accommodate. Controversial
policies such as the RH Law and the HIV/AIDS Law (Philippine AIDS
Prevention and Control Act of 1998) provide a window for analysis on the
actors and factors at play in the Philippine political environment. Both laws
were received with strong opposition from religious sectors and pro-family
groups, while it rallied support from family-planning advocates.
Public Administration
This branch examines the various administrative schemes implemented
by government officials. It analyzes the strategies applied by administrative
units in implementing the existing policies and the feedback mechanism that
they use to gain the opinion of the public. This field is important in
providing scientific evaluations of the efficiency of administrative units in
fulfilling their functions and the factors that affect them in their pursuit of
accomplishing their deliverables.
Given the scope and nature of the discipline of political science, it is
oriented toward an applied and interdisciplinary approach. Applied
orientation pervades all of its subdisciplines as they all address
contemporary issues on politics, ethics, and governance. It is
interdisciplinary as it uses the frameworks of other social science
disciplines, such as history, sociology, anthropology, psychology,
philosophy, and even demography, to provide contexts to a political
phenomenon. As such, its methods in gathering data is highly inclusive as it
uses both the quantitative and the qualitative approaches.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How is international relations different from comparative politics?
2. How can political science contribute to the resolution of
contemporary issues?
3. How is public administration different from public policy?
A conceptual model that may be used in analyzing the political
dynamics within a society is that of David Easton's political system model
(1957). Easton presents five primary variables in this model: environment,
input, political system, output, and feedback.
The environment consists of the historical, social, and economic
conditions of the society that affects the types of policies accepted and
declined by the electorate. In this category, you should consider questions
such as the following:
•
Does the country belong to the Global North or the Global South?
•
Is the country culturally pluralistic or homogenous?
•
Does the country have a colonial past?
These are pertinent inquiries as these would yield a background on the
type of responses to the system a society will have.
The next variable is the input. This refers to the forms of political events
or products that are needed by society from its government. This is divided
into two categories: demands and support. Demands refer to the perceived
needs of the population that could better their lives. This may include better
wages, equality in the workplace, and lowered taxes, to name a few. Again,
this is affected by the environment as the needs of the electorate vary per
environmental condition.
Support refers to mechanisms within the system that would allow for
such demands to be facilitated. For example, a demand for wage hike for
public school teachers may have support from related sectors such as the
working class political parties and the public school teachers. A demand
should also have support from existing structures. Hence, even if there is
general public support for the clamor of the teachers for higher wages, if
there is no facilitating institution to accommodate the needed change, then it
will have lesser chances of being heard by the government.
The political system acts like a black box through which every form of
demand is sifted and decided upon. It could be either democratic or
socialist, parliamentary or presidential, and unitary or federal. Based on the
nature of the political system, the demands are either acted upon or
neglected.
The decision of the government toward an input is called an output. This
includes policies, rules, laws, regulations, and projects. Using the example
on wage hike for teachers, the government could grant it by creating a law
that would increase their wages or provide an alternate solution such as
deloading teachers of working requirements to enable them to indulge in
other occupations. Whichever the government decides on, opinions and
responses would be made by the affected sectors. This is referred to as
feedback.
Feedback is important for the system to gauge the efficiency of its
response to a public need. It also provides the government a basis for
improving its response to public demands. Feedback on decisions made by
the system can also affect the types of demands and support that will be
made later by the public.
Fig. 5.1.
David Easton's model of a political system
Reflect Upon
Reflect Upon
Many people say that President Rodrigo Duterte is an unconventional
leader. He is often labeled as a populist leader. Using Easton's model,
analyze the rise of President Duterte to power by answering these
questions:
1. What contexts allowed for the demand for President Duterte's type
of leadership?
2. What type of support allowed for his election?
3. What types of political decisions did he make?
4. How did different groups in the general populace respond to it?
Political Science Concepts
Similar to anthropology and sociology, political science has disciplinebased concepts that aid in the analysis of society. This section presents the
eight most essential terms used in the field of political science.
Politics
This is the central concept in the discipline, as much as society is to
sociology and culture is to anthropology. Table 5.1 presents three definitions
of politics by different theorists.
Table 5.1.
Definitions of Politics
Theorist
Alfred Boyer
Definition of Politics
Politics is the interaction between the civil society and the
government in the activity of governance.
Max Weber
Politics is the exercise of power within a state.
David Easton
Politics is the authoritative allocation of scarce values.
Source:
Curtis. The Great Political Theories, 1976.
Boyer highlighted the concept of governance or the execution of laws
within a territory as mediated by civil society (sectors of society) and the
government. The government acts as the arbiter of rules and laws within a
territory. However, its power is tempered by the opinion of stakeholders in a
society.
Easton's definition promotes the idea that there are scarce or limited
values in society. This includes power, prestige, and other values that are
held by a select few in society. As such, competition for these values is
fierce, requiring an authoritative distribution of them. For example, the
power to govern is limited and the desire to acquire it is high. To avoid
political disorder, this value is distributed to a select few.
Weber introduced two essential concepts in political science: power and
state.
Power, as defined by Robert Dahl, is “the ability of person A to make
person B do what person B would not otherwise do” (American Political
Science Association, 2013). This implies the capacity to direct and influence
the decision of others. Hence, Weber's definition corresponds to the
interplay of power relations within a political system.
A state is a political entity that consists of four elements: territory,
government, people, and sovereignty. These elements are highlighted in De
Leon's (2005) definition of a state as:
a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of
territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render
obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.
A state is a political concept, which makes it intangible unlike its
elements. Two of the defining characteristics of a state are the following: (1)
it is independent from external control and (2) it may consist of many
nations.
Government
The set of personnel who manages the affairs of the state in its act of
allocating scarce values is called the government. Its existence is dictated by
the political system that it revolves on. For democratic systems, the aim of
the government is to advance the welfare of the general public.
Aristotle provided a system of classification of governments based on
number of rulers and its efficiency in governance (Curtis, 1981).
Table 5.2.
Aristotle's Classification of Government
Number of Ruler(s)
Normal Form
Perverted Form
One
Monarchy
Tyranny
Few
Aristocracy
Oligarchy
Many
Polity
Democracy
A government that is governed by one ruler who has efficient
administration of political and economic values is a monarchy. A perverted
form of it is tyranny or the rule of a dictator. Aristotle argued that a tyrant
ruler serves only his or her own interests. This leader is prone to using force
to stay in power as he or she merely usurped it. Monarchs are better leaders
as they are not prone to employ force to subjugate members of their society
as they do not feel the pressure to maintain their position, which they
inherited.
Aristotle argued that the rule of the few intellectuals known as
aristocracy is the best form of government. He said that aristocracy is less
prone to corruption given that it is run by a group of people who have no
vested self-interest due to their high moral values and noneconomic
preoccupation. Contrary to this, the rule of the few rich individuals is seen
by Aristotle as problematic, as the rulers are more predisposed to further
their economic interests.
The rule of aristocrats is the ideal but not a possibility, as this group of
people are not inclined toward the practice of governance due to their
preoccupation with the intellectual and the philosophical. Hence, according
to Aristotle, the best alternative for an effective government is the rule of
the middle class known as polity. This type of government is the most
efficient, as it is less prone to corruption. This is due to the rulers who come
from the middle class, are satisfied economically, and are well-educated.
Although well-accepted by current world leaders, democracy was
considered by Aristotle as an ineffective type of government. He said that
democracy had a potential for chaos and corruption, given that it is ruled by
the masses that are generally economically challenged and lacking proper
education.
Big Idea
Power is a political value that is limited in distribution but
highly demanded by the populace.
Beyond Walls 5.1
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
You are a political lobbyist for the youth sector. Your goal is to
support your bill that proposes free college education for all qualified
Filipinos. Your task is to create a brief that would inform policy makers
of the following:
1. Statistics of Filipinos who do not enter college
2. Statistics of unemployed young Filipinos
3. Statistics of job availability and the employment gap
4. Potential costs and benefits of this law
Your data must be correct and factual.
Sovereignty
This is the capacity of a political system to make independent decisions
within its territory. Sovereignty can be classified in terms of its scope.
Internal sovereignty refers to the capacity of a political system to implement
its rules and policies within its territory. External sovereignty refers to the
recognition of that system's existence and authority by other actors and
systems. The capacity of the government to quell rebellion by separatist
groups is a marker of its internal sovereignty. When a government's internal
sovereignty is perceived by other global actors as weak or even nonexistent,
its external sovereignty may be challenged.
Territory
This is the geographic space in which the sovereignty of a state is
exercised. A territory includes “the terrestrial, fluvial, and aerial domains,
including its territorial seas, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and
other submarine areas” (De Leon, 2005). Taking in point the Philippine
context, Article 1 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution declares the
following:
The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, with all the islands and waters
embraced therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or
jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial and aerial domains, including its territorial
sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other submarine areas. The waters
around between, the connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth and
dimensions, from part of the internal waters of the Philippines.
This definition can be further understood using this map.
Fig. 5.2.
Territorial map of the Philippines
Source:
http://www.lawphil.net/judjuris/juri2011/aug2011/187167.jpg
People
This fourth element of a state is the most crucial of all, as it is through
the existence of the people that concepts on government, state, territory, and
sovereignty take shape. In the context of political science, the term people is
synonymous to a nation. A nation is a concept that is related to ethnicity, as
people within it are bound by cultural and historical ties. A state can consist
of many nations. For example, pluralistic societies such as the United States,
Singapore, and the European Union have multicultural populations under
one administration. In the same way, a nation can be framed within different
forms of government. For example, the Arab nation, which is distributed
around the world, is subjected to varying forms of government. Hence, the
Arab nation in the Global South experiences a different form of governance
from those who are in the Global North.
When a state is composed of people who share the same culture and
history, it gains the compounded identity of being a nation-state. Not all
states can be considered as such due to the lack of shared identity among its
people.
Beyond Walls 5.2
Read and Answer
Disputes based on territorial claims have been consistently observed
in contemporary history by experts of international relations. Recently,
the Philippines has been engaged in a territorial dispute with China over
the area referred to as the West Philippine Sea or South China Sea. Read
this article on the landmark win of the Philippines against China in the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
arbitration. Then answer the questions that follow:
http://globalnation.inquirer.net/140358/philippines-arbitrationdecision-maritime-dispute-south-china-sea-arbitral-tribunalunclos-itlos
1. What are the bases of the decision?
2. What is the claim of China?
3. What is the claim of the Philippines?
4. Why does UNCLOS have authority on the case?
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. Why is sovereignty a key element of the state?
2. What concepts are associated with the term “nation”?
3. What contexts are included in the concept of “territory”?
4. What are the characteristics of a polity?
5. How can the three definitions of politics be rephrased to form a
comprehensive definition?
Extend Your Knowledge
Presented here is an excerpt from the essay titled “The Bloodstained
Rise of Global Populism” by Alfred McCoy for the Asia Times. In a twopage essay, write a critical assessment of the current administration's
approach toward governance as compared to the Marcos era. Support
your arguments with examples drawn from actual political events.
To read the entire article, go to http://www.atimes.com/bloodstainedrise-global-populism/.
Populism in the Philippines: The Marcos Era
Although now remembered mainly as a “kleptocrat” who plundered his country
and enriched himself with shameless abandon (epitomized by the discovery that
his wife possessed 3,000 pairs of shoes), Ferdinand Marcos was, in fact, a
brilliant populist, thoroughly skilled in the symbolic uses of violence.
As his legal term as president came to an end in 1972, Marcos – who, like
many populists, saw himself as chosen by destiny to save his people from
perdition – used the military to declare martial law. He then jailed 50,000
opponents, including the senators who had blocked his favored legislation and
the gossip columnists who had mocked his wife's pretensions. The first months of
his dictatorship actually lacked any official violence. Then, just before dawn
onJanuary15,1973, constabulary officers read a presidential execution order and
strapped Lim Seng, an overseas Chinese heroin manufacturer, to a post at a
Manila military camp.
As a battery of press photographers stood by, an eight-man firing squad
raised their rifles. Replayed endlessly on television and in movie theaters, the
dramatic footage of bullets ripping open the victim's chest was clearly meant to be
a vivid display of the new dictator's power, as well as an appeal to his country's
ingrained anti-Chinese racism.
Lim Seng would be the only victim legally executed in the 14 years of the
Marcos dictatorship. However, extrajudicial killings were another matter.
Marcos made clever use of the massive US military bases near Manila to win
continuing support for his authoritarian (and increasingly bloody) rule from three
successive American administrations, even effectively neutralizing president
Jimmy Carter's human rights policy.
After a decade of dictatorship, however, the economy began to collapse from
a too-heavy dose of “crony capitalism” and the political opposition started to
challenge Marcos' self-image as destiny's chosen one.
To either sate or subdue an increasingly restive population, he soon resorted
to escalating raw violence. His security squads conducted what were referred to
as “salvagings,” more than 2,500 of them (or 77% of the 3,257 extrajudicial
killings during his 14-year dictatorship).
Bodies scarred by torture were regularly abandoned in public plazas or at
busy intersections, so passers-by could read the transcript of terror in their
stigmata.
In the capital, Manila, with only 4,000 police for six million residents, the
Marcos regime also deputized hundreds of “secret marshals” responsible for
more than 30 shoot-on-sight fatalities during May 1985, the program's first month,
alone.
Yet the impact of Marcos' version of populist violence proved mutable –
effective at the start of martial law when people yearned for order and
counterproductive at its close when Filipinos again longed for freedom.
That shift in sentiment soon led to his downfall in the first of the dramatic
“people power” revolutions that would challenge autocratic regimes from Beijing
to Berlin.
Essential Learning
Political science is a discipline within the social sciences that
specializes in the understanding of the allocation of scarce values within a
territory. Power, a highly coveted political value, is the capacity to
enforce policies on a majority even if the enforcing unit is a minority.
Being an interdisciplinary discipline, political science is able to explore
various inquiries that relate to interstate relations, local governance,
political culture, and even public policy. It is in this broadness that
political science finds its significance in contemporary society as it
presents alternative ways of understanding sociopolitical phenomena and
promotes research-based solutions to politically oriented problems.
Module
6
Enculturation and Socialization
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Explain the development of myself and others as a product of
socialization and enculturation.
2. Identify the context, content, processes, and consequences of
enculturation and socialization.
3. Identify the social goals and the socially acceptable means of
achieving these goals.
How is culture ingrained in children? Is it through biological inheritance
(nature) or through cultural inheritance (nurture)? The issue on nature and
nurture has been a longstanding debate in the fields of social sciences such
as sociology and anthropology. Two primary opposing perspectives are held
by social learning theorists and sociobiologists.
Proponents of the social learning theory argue that the set of behaviors
of an individual is acquired through enculturation and socialization
processes. The variation in human behavior is attributed to the differences in
cultural templates of every society that the individual learns from.
Proponents of sociobiology counter this perspective by advocating that
humans acquire their behavior genetically. More specifically, beneficial
biological traits are naturally selected and passed on to the next generation.
As such, behavioral traits that are linked to biological traits necessary for
survival in a specific environment are naturally selected within a generation
and get passed on to the next.
Today, the social learning perspective is more accepted by sociologists
and anthropologists in explaining the development of behavior and attitude
among humans. Sociologists use the term socialization to refer to the
process by which an individual is oriented and taught by his or her society's
norms. These norms include beliefs, attitudes, practices, and behaviors.
Similarly, this process is studied in anthropology through the concept of
enculturation.
Fig.6.1.
Victor of Aveyron
Source:
http://images.flatworldknowledge.com/barkbrief_1.1/barkbrief_1.1fig03_002.jpg
In instances when a person does not get socialized or enculturated, it is
possible that his or her behavior would resemble that of other animals. This
was observed among feral children (wild children) of France. They were
labeled as such due to their display of animalistic behavior upon their
discovery. One of the most famous cases is that of Victor, who was
popularly known as the “boy of Aveyron.” Victor lived in the forest alone
from his fourth to twelfth year. He was found in 1797 by locals and was
taken in by Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, a physician who gave him his name.
For years, Itard and other scientists attempted to teach Victor spoken
language to no avail. Recent studies on the documents on Victor revealed
that he may have been left in the forest by his parents who physically
abused him when he was six or seven. A probable reason for the
abandonment is Victor's mental condition, because he displayed signs of
autism. The case of feral children was also recorded in other parts of the
world (Bettelheim, 1959). However, no conclusive scientific study has still
been conducted and accomplished about the topic.
Reflect Upon
Reflect Upon
Discuss with your barkada or your close friends the primary
characteristic that you share as a group by answering the following
questions:
1. How would you describe the relationships in your group (e.g., equal,
with hierarchy)?
2. What characteristic(s) do you share with each other in the group (e.g.,
creative, passive)?
3. How do outsiders describe your group?
4. Who typically starts a trend in your group?
5. How has your membership in this group altered your behavior?
Identity Formation
You have learned that through enculturation and socialization, an
individual learns the norms of his or her society. The compilation of the
values, attitudes, and beliefs that individuals receive from their family,
peers, and community enables them to create a personal identity that
simultaneously separates them from the other members of the group and
incorporates them in its system. Such differentiation from the general social
template is called individuation. This can be related to the concept of
personal identity.
Social identity is a person's notion of who he or she is in society. This
includes the roles and statuses that he or she performs in accord to what the
society expects of him or her. There are two primary types of identity that an
individual takes on: primary and secondary. Primary identity consists of the
roles and statutes that an individual learns as a child. This includes the core
social identities that are often ascribed to an individual such as sex, age, and
ethnicity. As a child gets enculturated and socialized with his or her
society's norm, he or she participates in the construction of his or her
secondary identity. This includes roles and statuses that are achieved such as
occupation, educational background, economic status, and gender.
This duality of identity produces the “me” and “I” dichotomy that
humans have.
Fig.6.2.
Model of consciousness: The I and me perspective (Wilber, 1997)
Big Idea
Identities are socially constructed.
This model presents a fourfold understanding of human identity, which
are categorized as follows: the existential “I,” the doing “me,” the cultural
“I,” and the performing “me.” These categories promote a holonic concept
of the self—the self is both a whole and a part. The self in the context of the
personal pertains to the wholeness of an individual's identity. This leads
back to the uniqueness of every individual. The self in the context of it
being a part of a whole reflects on the ascribed roles that it plays within the
context of society.
Reflect Upon
A person's identity is constructed through the interactions he or she
makes within a social network. Using this template, categorize these
types of social media posts, whether they should be made public or
private: birthday celebrations, school achievements, relationship issues,
party-related activities, and ill feelings toward others, to name a few.
Understanding that life is not a clear-cut distinction between the private
and the public, write in the adjoined space the types of posts that you can
put in both public and private.
In the previous activity, notice how you categorized the elements. What
factors did you consider in categorizing the elements? Your cultural
background plays an important role in enabling you to identify which part of
your identity is for display to your peers and which is for display to your
parents. This is the reason that you play different roles for different groups
of people.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the factors that influence the creation of one's identity?
2. Why do sociologists
sociobiology?
favor
social
learning
theories
than
Theories on Identity
There are two primary theories related to the understanding of identity
formation and practice. The role learning theory promotes the argument that
individuals learn a repertoire of social roles from their society. They then
reproduce this repertoire in their behavior. Roles constitute the social facts
(e.g., gender role, occupational role, family role) that inhibit, empower, and
influence an individual's actions. Conformity to these social facts is
rewarded by acceptance from members of the society, whereas
nonconformity results in ostracism. The primary argument against this
theory is that it is too socialization-deterministic, as it side steps the
potential of humans to recreate roles and not just accept them.
This weakness is addressed by the theory on symbolic interactionism,
which promotes the idea that individuals construct their notion of the self
through social interactions performed within a society. This implies that
roles and their performances are part of a creative process wherein the
individual sees the behavior of others and responds to it by creating a role
that it can play. This presents humans as social actors performing within a
cultural or social field.
Beyond Walls 6.1
Go Online
This link will lead you to a video comparing identity theory and
social identity theory: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUs_Y3zI7c.
After watching the video, create your own 10-minute video
answering this question: Who am I? In making this video, ensure that
you are presenting your answers based on the two theories. This activity
can be done in groups.
Norms and Values
The concept of cultural values refers to all those ideas held in society
that are considered good, acceptable, and right. Cultural values inform the
types of aspirations that members of society aspire for, and these are labeled
as social goals. A society that is rooted in individualism would have one of
its social goals to have its dependent population emancipated from parental
support at an earlier age. While a society that is rooted in extensive kinship
system would have the pooling of family members within one territory as a
social goal. Such goals are achieved through socially approved norms that
constitute beliefs, behaviors, and material possessions.
Using conflict theory, it can be said that these values and goals are
sometimes the source of conflict within a society, as individuals have
varying access and experiences relating to it. For example, the values which
center on wealth acquisition and its accompanying prestige and power are
not held true by all individuals in a society, as these values are scarce and
unattainable for some individuals.
Another perspective on values and goals is from the functionalism
theory, which argues that values exist to create unity and harmony within
the structure and fulfill the needs of the individuals. This uses the
organismic view of society wherein its parts (organs) are interrelated and
critical for its existence (organism). Values are created and upheld because
they maintain the structure that promotes social order. For example, the
values that Filipinos attach to family promote tightly knit communities that
serve as support groups for individuals.
Because a society has a plethora of values and goals, conflicts in the
practice of these are possible. The value that Filipinos put on family
sometimes poses a great threat in the practice of democratic governance in
the country due to the kumpadrino system that leads to nepotism and
political dynasties (McCoy, 2009). In this case, the ideal culture of a
democratic society is countered by the real culture of family-run political
institutions. An ideal culture is what a society believes that it follows,
whereas the real culture is what the society actually follows.
Reinforcing the continuity of values and goals in society are the norms
that are established. These consist of the rules and regulations on behavior.
Although societies may have similar values and goals, the norms that are
created in reference to these values may vary. For example, the values
placed on family are displayed differently across cultures. The act of placing
an aging family member in a nursing home may be a norm in Western
societies, but it is almost unacceptable, or even unthinkable, in most Asian
societies.
There are four categories of norms: folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
Folkways are the socially approved behaviors that have no moral
underpinning. This includes a variety of actions that constitute acceptable or
expected behavior drawn from customs and conventions. For example,
some societies (e.g., Americans) consider it rude for a visitor to make
slurping sounds when consuming soup, whereas others (e.g., Chinese)
encourage it. Mores are the norms related to moral conventions. These
include behaviors that are considered acceptable in relation to religious
practices. The use of artificial contraceptives, such as condoms and birth
control pills, is frowned upon in highly religious societies, whereas it is
accepted, and even encouraged, in others that do not strictly follow the
conventional dictates of religious doctrine. Some cultural prohibitions are
strictly implemented than the others, which make them taboo. Taboos are
behaviors that are absolutely forbidden in a specific culture. Performances
of taboos are met with stricter punishments. Examples of taboos are
cannibalism and incest. It must be noted that taboos are not universal. Some
societies do allow behaviors that are considered repugnant in others.
Reinforcing the non-practice of tabooed behaviors are the laws that are
enacted by the state. Laws consist of the rules and regulations that are
implemented by the state, making them the prime source of social control.
Violations of laws are met with punishments, fines, ostracism, and
imprisonment.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What is the kumpadrino system?
2. How does functionalism explain values and norms?
3. How does symbolic interactionism explain identity?
4. How does conflict theory explain values and norms?
5. What are the parallelisms between enculturation and socialization?
Status and Role
Our forms of social interaction are always within the context of our
status and that of the people we are interacting with. This is to say that we
speak and behave differently toward different sets of people. You have a set
of vocabularies and nonverbal cues that you use for your parents, which you
may not use with your peers. A status is an individual's position in his or her
society, which carries with it a set of defined rights and obligations. Your
status as a student comes with obligations and rights, which are defined as
your roles.
Roles are the sets of expectation from people who occupy a particular
status. From the vocabulary that they would use to their performance of
their statuses, these are all within the framework of roles. The behavior of
an individual within a social space in accordance to his or her status is
called role performance. Sometimes, a status has multiple roles attached to
it. This multiplicity of roles within a given status is called a role set. Hence,
your teacher's role is not just to educate you. He or she also has the role of
being your guardian while you are away from your parents.
As humans are capable of occupying various statuses simultaneously,
conflicts may arise in the variety of roles that they have to perform. A single
mother who is working full-time has two equally important roles. She has
the role of being a single parent who must provide for her child. However,
given her other status which requires her to perform the role of a wageearner, a conflict on which role she needs to prioritize sometimes arises.
Role conflict stems from the divergent expectations of the statuses that an
individual simultaneously occupies. Such conflicts may create role strain on
the individual. This implies that the individual is having difficulty in
performing the role required of him or her. In the case of the single mother
with a full-time job, role strain might cause her to choose which role she
will have to continue performing and which role she needs to discontinue.
This process of discontinuing with a role is labeled as role exit. Individuals
would often have a role exit to either address a role strain or to indulge in a
new role set.
Beyond Walls 6.2
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
You are a human resource consultant for a start-up talent company.
You have been tasked to create an organizational chart with job
descriptions. The organizational chart should start from the chief
executive officer down to the talent scouts. For each role, write the job
description in no more than five sentences. Make sure that the new
company will not encounter overlapping roles and tasks. Your teacher
will serve as the operations manager of the new company. He or she will
evaluate your output based on comprehensiveness of your structure,
clarity of role delineation, and relevance of created positions.
Conformity and Deviance
Do you act differently from what others expect of you? How do they
respond to your statements and actions? These are questions that must be
considered when discussing the concept of deviance and conformity.
Conformity is the act of following the roles and goals of one's society.
This behavior is often met with rewards and acceptance from other members
of the society.
Deviance is the act of violating the prescribed social norms. Acts of
deviance are often associated with a stigma. A stigma is a strong sense of
disapproval on nonconforming behavior from members of a society. When
deviance is within the context of legal structures, it may even be considered
a crime or a violation of a law.
Because deviance is always juxtaposed with a norm, which changes
based on environmental factors, it is also constantly changing. As it is
socially constructed, the actions that are considered deviant vary per society
and per social status.
There are several theories that explain the existence of deviants
(humans/groups) and deviance (acts). These are as follows:
•
Social control theory – Deviance is primarily caused by a lack in
stronger social bonds within a society. As an individual feels less
attached to his or her society, there is a higher chance for him or her
to deviate from social norms.
•
Rational choice theory – The individual's decision to follow or to go
against social norms is dependent on their perceived cost and benefit
of such action. This implies that humans weigh the impact of
following a norm. If following a norm would cost them more than
what they could spare, such a norm is set aside and they would
choose to perform a deviant act.
•
Differential association theory – Conformity or deviance is learned
by an individual from those he or she associates with. Hence, if an
individual has stronger associations with a group of deviants, then it
is most likely that he or she would conform to deviant behavior than
that of what the general public considers as a norm. Interestingly,
what is deviant for the general public may be considered as a norm
among a group of deviants.
•
Labeling theory – Actions are initially not considered deviant until
they are labeled as such by members of the community. Based on
this theory, there are two stages of deviance: primary and secondary.
Primary deviance is a type of act that does not end with the
individual being labeled as such. This is due to the age and intensity
of the deviance committed. Secondary deviance is the type of act
that results from being labeled by society as a deviant. This presents
the theory's key argument that humans who are labeled as deviants
would often commit deviant acts due to societal pressure brought
about by stigma. Hence, a person who is labeled a thief may resort to
being one as a response to economic ostracism caused by social
stigma.
•
Conflict theory – Society consists of opposing groups of people
whose access to power is unequal. The group that has access to
power determines which actions are deviant based on their perceived
advantage. Usually, the set of behaviors of the elite is created and
reproduced as the norm, and those of the powerless are considered
deviant.
•
Structural-functionalist theory – This theory proposes two
perspectives in the formation of deviant behavior. On the macro
level, deviance is a product of the breakdown of social norms which
produces anomie or social disorganization. On the microlevel,
deviance is a product of the role strain that an individual experiences
due to lack of resources to cope with the demands of the social
norms.
Based on this perspective, Merton (1957) created a model illustrating
the types of responses that individuals have toward social norms with regard
to two variables: cultural goals and institutional means. Cultural goals
consist of the values that are important for the society. Institutional means
are the processes that have been established through social structures such
as the government, school, church, and even family.
Fig. 6.3.
Merton's deviance typology (Merton, 1957)
In Merton's typology, individuals who accept their society's cultural
goals and that of the process to accomplish it are labeled as conformists,
whereas those who accept the goal but not the process are called innovators.
Such individuals are bent toward achieving the same social goals using an
alternative approach. Individuals who reject the goal but accept the process
are prone to ritualism, as they perform the social norms without subscribing
to the social goals that such lead to. Those who reject both the goals and the
approach are in the process of retreatism, which would redefine the goals
and processes in a society in the form of rebellion.
Nevertheless, this theory argues that deviance is important in
maintaining the social structure of a society; it bonds members of the
society in their common rejection of a deviant behavior. It also provides
members of society with guidelines on appropriate behavior with the display
of unacceptable and stigmatized actions.
Big Idea
Deviance is a social construct that labels and marginalizes
persons who do not conform to social norms.
Beyond Walls 6.3
Read and Answer
Read the article on this link which discusses the power of Instagram
and other social media platforms in influencing our perception of
ourselves:
http://elitedaily.com/life/culture/x-pro-ii-valencia-instagramchoose-neither/614571/
After reading the article, answer the following questions:
1. How do social media influence our notion of ourself?
2. How do social media influence our notion of the world?
3. What kind of culture does Instagram create in the virtual world?
4. Using one of the theories regarding conformity and deviance,
discuss how you are performing in the social media world.
Social Control
To maintain social order and stability, social control is needed. The two
elements that promote social control are internalization and sanctions.
Internalization is an integral part of communicating and incorporating social
norms to an individual's personality. It is in this process that an individual is
made to automatically conform to the dictates of his or her society through a
cost-benefit orientation. One key element in ensuring that individuals are
able to internalize social norms is the establishment of sanctions.
What happens if you decide not to do your homework? Possible
outcomes include the following:
1. Getting a zero score or rating for the activity from your teacher
2. Getting a stern warning on how to be a better child from your parent
3. Being labeled as lazy by your classmates
Considering all these possible repercussions of not completing your
homework, would you opt to complete it or still sidestep it?
Sanctions are powerful in leading an individual to conform to social
norms. Despite an individual's disinclination to conform, when the sanction
is strong, there is a high possibility that he or she will decide to follow the
norm. Sanctions can be categorized into four types.
•
Formal sanctions – These are the rewards or forms of punishment
that are formally awarded by an institution such as a government, a
council, or an establishment.
•
Informal sanctions – These are the rewards and forms of punishment
that are spontaneously given by an individual or a group of people as
a response to a behavior that was either accepted or disapproved.
•
Positive sanctions – These are actions or statements that reward a
particular behavior, which reinforce its repetition.
These are actions or statements that punish or threaten to punish an
unacceptable behavior, which enforce conformity to the deviant.
These general categories can be combined to form specific typologies of
sanctions. See Table 6.1.
Table 6.1.
Definition and examples of the types of sanctions
Formal Positive
Formal Negative
Informal Positive
Informal
Negative
Definition
A reward given by
A punishment
A reward given by an
A punishment
an institution to
given by an
individual/group that
given by an
encourage
institution to
encourages
individual/group
conformity
enforce
conformity
to coerce
conformity
Examples
1. Recognition of
honors
in
a
learning facility
2. Medal of honor
conformity
1. Imprisonment
1. Standing ovation
for a crime
from
committed
viewers/attendees
2. Payment
of
2. An
for outstanding
fines
for
nod
conduct
offenses
in
government
3. Promotion
in
from
teammates
from
the
scoring a shot
unsatisfactory
a
bad
behavior
2. Ridicule
from peers
3. Being
fired
for
Beyond Walls 6.4
a
3. Being
workplace for
performance
from
3. Cheers
the workplace
excellent
affirmative
superior
committed
service
the
1. Gossip about
for
grounded by
a parent
service
Go Online
One of the spaces where individuals air their ideas on social issues is
the internet. Go to http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/874252/bill-loweringminimum-age-of-criminal-liability-too-much-minority-solons to read
news on the issues associated with the proposal to lower the age
limitation for criminal liability. After the article is the comment section
where readers vent their ideas and arguments on the topic. Based on
your knowledge of the current crime rate in the country, do you agree
with this bill, or do you oppose it? Choose a comment given by one of
the readers and print it. On the lower part of the print, write your
statement on this issue as though you were replying to that comment.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. Why is social control important in society?
2. What are the four types of sanctions?
3. According to Merton, what contexts allow for rebellion to occur?
Extend Your Knowledge
Strain theory provides explanations for various social phenomena.
This link leads to an article applying the theory to understand a string of
riots that occurred in Baltimore, USA:
http://sociologyinfocus.com/2015/05/structural-strain-theoryand-the-baltimore-riots/
Essential Learning
Through this module you have learned that a person's identity is
socially constructed through the processes of enculturation and
socialization. It is through these processes that an individual is oriented of
the norms in his or her society which, if followed, will allow him or her
to access the limited values and resources in it. It is also through these
processes that an individual becomes familiar with the sanctions that are
imposed on deviance to the established norms. In today's world,
socialization and enculturation do not only transpire in traditional media
such as family interactions or group memberships. The rise of social
media as a venue for the articulation of the individual's concept of self
allowed for a new source of identity reference.
Module
7
Social Organization
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Describe the organized nature of social life and rules governing
behavior.
2. Compare different forms of social organization, according to
their manifest and latent functions.
3. Analyze social and political structures.
Barkada is a term that most Filipinos in their youth use to refer to a
group who share the same social inclinations. The fondest memories of
one's youth would often be of the experiences they shared with their
barkada. Every age group in every society creates and subscribes to a social
group.
Reflect Upon
Some native American societies create totem poles to remind their
members of the characteristics of their ancestors. These poles have varied
animals carved into the trunk of a tree. The animals symbolize the trait of
the ancestor, such that a monkey symbolizes wisdom and a bear
symbolizes strength. With your barkada in class, draw a totem pole that
represents the traits that you and the members of your barkada share.
Draw this on a sheet of paper, and add a 250-word discussion explaining
your barkada's totem pole.
A social group consists of individuals who are united by their similar
characteristics, and these characteristics serve as the bases of their constant
interaction. However, not all individuals who share similar characteristics
interact with one another. This phenomenon is observed in social categories.
For example, your barkada may be classified as a social group; students
attending your high school are within the context of a social category, as
you do not normally interact with them. Your relationship with your fellow
high school students will turn to a social group once you recognize your ties
with one another as belonging to one group and you interact with one
another. Social activities organized by your school can promote the
transformation of your relations from being distant members of a social
category to interactive members of a social group.
Another classification of human grouping is that of social aggregate. In
this, individuals gather in the same place but are neither interacting nor
sharing similar characteristics. People gathered in a shopping mall may be
categorized in this.
Social Networks
A social network consists of individuals who have dyadic relationships
that are interacting with other relationships within a structure. Simply stated,
a social network is a social structure consisting of people who have varying
degrees of relations and interrelationships. A sociogram is a visual
representation of the social networks present in one group or more. This was
developed by Jacob Moreno, a psychotherapist, in 1951 to understand the
dynamics of the intersections of social groups (e.g., individuals, peers)
within the structure (e.g., a school, a church, a village).
Figure 7.1. is a sample of a sociogram. It depicts the interrelationships,
or the lack thereof, among the members of this social structure. One can
notice multiple arrangements existing here such as (1) a clique (an exclusive
group that is separate from the entire unit), (2) a one-way choice (an
individual who relates to another individual who does not reciprocate the
affiliation), and (3) an isolate (an individual who has chosen no one and is
not chosen by anyone in the structure).
Fig. 7.1.
A sociogram
How many of these relationships can you see in the diagram?
In-Groups, Out-Groups, and Reference Groups
When individuals congregate in groups, they create rules, boundaries,
and loyalties that delineate them from others. This delineation is a crucial
contributor to the formation of unity and cohesion among the members.
There are three types of human social groupings: in-group, out-group, and
reference group.
In-Group
An in-group is the social group in which an individual directly affiliates
and expresses loyalty to. Its three primary characteristics reinforce the
boundary that it creates between its members and those coming from other
groups. We shall take a look at each of the three primary characteristics of
an in-group.
1. Members use titles, external symbols, and dress to distinguish
themselves from the out-group (Shandra, 2007).
One of the most recent subcultural categories formed in our country
is that of the jejemons. This group is popular for their distinguishable
dress code and language. Males would usually wear rainbow-colored
caps, loose shirts, and pants. In terms of language, their alteration of the
spelling of words has given them a form of exclusivity from those who
are not part of the culture. Figure 7.2 shows how some phrases such as
“kumusta” and “hello po” have been transformed to “mztaHhhh” and
“eowsszz powhh.”
Fig. 7.2.
Jejemon caricature
Military groups can also be seen as having a very strong in-group
culture. The bonds that military personnel create with one another are
enhanced by their shared ideals, practices, and experiences. From a
prescribed haircut that everyone shares, to the symbols that everyone
upholds, this group is able to detach themselves from the greater majority
who are not part of their group. The rigorous training that they had to pass
and, for some, the combat experiences together also create a strong bond
between them that they do not share with those outside the military.
Fig. 7.3.
Members of the military join together in prayer during their lunch
2. Members apply positive stereotypes to their in-group and negative
stereotypes to the out-group (Shandra, 2007).
Generally, the in-group consists of the majority who defines what is
normal and acceptable. Those who do not conform to the prescribed
norms are considered part of the out-group. Just as deviance is often
punished by ostracism and discrimination, individuals who fail to meet
the standards set by the in-group are bound to experience being socially
marginalized.
The phenomenon of individuals preferring members and behaviors
practiced within an in-group as opposed to those from the out-group is
called in-group favoritism. This is crucial in reinforcing self-esteem
within the group by creating biases that make the in-group the
“superior” over the out-group.
3. Members tend to clash or compete with members of the out-group. This
competition with the other group can also strengthen the unity within
each group (Shandra, 2007).
Rivalries among schools, which are highlighted during competitions
in sports, quiz bees, and rankings, are a prime example of how members
from an in-group tend to compete with the out-group. School spirit is
often intensified through the common desire of individuals in a group to
succeed against the opposing group.
In some cases, intergroup aggression takes place as members of the
in-group harm individuals from the out-group due to their undesirable
traits that clash with the in-group's prescribed norms. Bullying is an
example of intergroup aggression, as members of a dominant group
inflict harm on an individual who is perceived to be an outsider.
Stereotypes and prejudice are often created by members of the in-group
against those from the out-group. This is due to the ethnocentric
orientation of the members in an in-group.
Big Idea
Group membership allows humans to acquire characteristics
that contribute to identity formation.
Beyond Walls 7.1
Go Online
Bullying is a global problem that transpires in all venues. As
humans are not born bullies, we must understand how bullies are made.
This link will direct you to an article that discusses the sociological
analysis of bullying. After reading the article, write the names that
bullies use against other people on an illustration board. (You can also
use a folder for this.) Hold your board and take a selfie.
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/sociological-analysisbullying-literature-review-adam-cubbage
Out-Group
This is the group that an individual is not part of. Negative attributes are
usually associated with individuals who are part of this group. Individuals
from an out-group are usually considered malevolent even if they are not.
Because members of the in-group perceive themselves as diverse and
complex, members of the out-group are described as a group without any
differentiation. Hence, these individuals are prone to being stereotyped and,
worse, dehumanized, as members of the in-group refer to them solely on the
bases of their projected characteristics. For example, an individual who is
part of an in-group of heterosexuals would consider those with different
genders as part of the out-group without distinguishing what types of gender
they have. In cases of war, opposing groups tend to dehumanize each other,
often leading to countless deaths.
Beyond Walls 7.2
Read and Answer
The concept of othering has been practiced in human populations
since we have become aware of the existence of variation among our
species. Othering has taken on various forms in practice that extends
from colonization, to racism, to ethnic cleansing, and to genocide. This
link
will
lead
you
to
a
briefer
on
genocide:
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-11108059.
After reading the article, answer the following questions:
1. How do you define genocide?
2. What is the history behind genocide?
3. What is the legal precedent of genocide?
Reference Group
The behavior of an individual can be shaped by the set of behavior and
beliefs of a group that such an individual considers as ideal. This ideal
group is called the reference group, which is used by an individual as a
standard to measure his or her actions. The existence of reference groups
can have two effects on an individual's self-evaluation. When an individual
receives a positive self-evaluation, he or she experiences the normative
effect that being a member of the reference group has. On the contrary, a
negative self-evaluation often results from the comparison effect that a
reference group has on individuals who try to appraise their behavior based
on its prescribed norms. In this case, an individual may attempt to alter his
or her behavior to conform to the standards of the reference group.
Systems for ranking the efficiency of universities have allowed for the
creation of reference groups in the academic field. The universities that are
listed as the best among their counterparts are held as a reference point by
which others attempt to restructure their programs and objectives.
Primary and Secondary Groups
Group membership has been a key element in fostering the development
of the social nature and ideals of an individual. Each individual is part of a
primary group and a secondary group from which he or she learns the
culture of his or her society.
Primary groups are the direct sources of an individual's social skills and
knowledge. The bonds that an individual forms with members of these
groups extend over long periods of time. An individual's primary groups
usually consist of family, friends, peers, classmates, and church. Due to the
connection between the individual and the members of this group, primary
relationships are formed from these social sets. As familiarity is present in
these relations, forms of interaction and communication are often informal
and holistic. This implies that your relationship with your parents is not
rigid and cuts across all areas of your life. Hence, a breakfast conversation
about your grades in school may turn to a discussion of your expected roles
in your home.
Small and traditional societies often promote primary relationships, as
everyone in the village tends to be interrelated by kinship, economic
engagement, and religious orientation.
Secondary groups are more formal in context as the relationships and
interactions in them are limited to a particular role that an individual plays
within the group. This may consist of relationships that are temporary and
practical such as that of a client and an agent, a researcher and an informant,
and a tenant and a landlord. In these types of relationships, face-to-face
interaction is limited and communication is often formal. As such,
discussions relating to the personal are often discouraged in this setting.
Such detached forms of relationships are usually observed in highly
industrialized societies where individualism is given primacy over
community engagements.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the characteristics of a reference group?
2. How does the concept of the out group contribute to stereotyping?
3. What are the characteristics of a secondary group?
Small Groups
The type and extent of human interaction depends on the size of the
group that they belong to. A large group tends to promote detachment
through indirect interaction. Isolated members often cope by creating small
groups that foster direct interaction among its members. This type of
interaction often forms exclusivity, as experiences and ideas are strictly
shared within the context of the small group. Primary relationships are
created in a small group, whereas secondary relationships are experienced in
a large group.
A family is an example of a small group, and a village (barangay) is an
example of a large group. The most cohesive and directly interacting small
group is called the dyad, which consists of two individuals. Such a
relationship has potential for the formation of strong bonds due to the
constant interaction that the individuals have. However, it is also prone to
ruin, as conflict between the two individuals can result in the dissolution of
the relationship.
A small group of three individuals is called a triad. This type of small
group has lesser cohesion than a dyad because of the lesser personal
connection that each individual has with the other members in the group.
The cohesion of a group is directly related to the number of individuals
subscribing to it. As such, members of a small group have more attachment
with one another than other people in a larger group who may feel
disconnected with the group to the extent of non involvement even in
critical situations. For example, problems are communally addressed in a
family due to the close-knit relationship that everyone has with one another.
On the contrary, problems experienced in a village may be dealt with by
selected members of the society, as others may perceive the problem as
irrelevant to them. Social loafing, a phenomenon of free riding, can also be
experienced in larger groups, as some individuals tend to depend on others'
initiative to perform tasks that are originally expected of them.
Leadership and Conformity
Do you follow the behavior of your group, or do you opt to go against
it? How do you respond to the demand for conformity from members of
your group?
Group behavior is another topic studied in the context of social groups.
Individuals in groups are affected by the prescribed norms of the group that
they subscribe to. Conformity is the behavior of an individual that relates to
following the prescribed norms of his or her group due to pressure or
influence that members of the group have on him or her. Stricter compliance
to norms can be observed in smaller groups due to the stronger pressure to
conform, which is felt by the individual. Due to the general secondary
relationships that are formed within them, larger groups are prone to have
less strict compliance to social norms, resulting in a variance of behavioral
sets practiced by its members. This nonconformity in larger groups is
further enhanced by the anonymity of the members, which allows them to
view one another as strangers who are easy to disregard.
Smaller groups tend to practice group-think, which is a united
acceptance and practice of idea that is believed as a form of group loyalty.
This form of mentality is sometimes based on the majority's perspective and
decision that may not always be logical and correct. Individuals who do not
subscribe to group-think are considered deviant and are pressured to
conform, lest they be punished or ostracized. As such, when group-think is
strictly observed, the voice of the minority is silenced. Sometimes, this form
of solidarity becomes dangerous due to the lack of perspective that it
promotes.
Every group tends to have leaders who exercise authority over its
members. There are two types of leaders in a small group: expressive and
instrumental. The difference between the two lies in the motivation for
leadership. An expressive leader is motivated by the relationships that he or
she has with the members of the group. This leader employs a cooperative
style of management, wherein the opinions of the members are accounted
for as the main goal of group is to maintain its cohesion.
Instrumental leaders implement a directive style of management,
wherein members of the group are directed to perform tasks that lead to the
achievement of the group goal. This type of leader is achievement
motivated, which makes the purpose of the group and the individuals
defined by the goals they have set. Unlike under the leadership of an
expressive leader, unity is often a threatened concept under the leadership of
an instrumental leader. This threat is due to the conflicts that are usually
formed in the pursuit of achieving a goal. An instrumental leader may
experience resentment from members of his or her group, which may not be
experienced by an expressive leader.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How does social loafing occur in large groups?
2. Why does conflict arise more under an instrumental leader?
3. Differentiate the practice of conformity in smaller groups as
compared to larger groups.
Social Organizations
Organizations are created by individuals to foster a more direct
relationship in secondary group setting. When a secondary group is directed
by its goals, it is referred to as a formal organization. This would include
groups such as political parties and academic and professional
organizations. These types of organizations are driven by their goals that
define their programs and activities. Within these formal organizations are
informal organizations that are characterized by the informal relations
between members. Hence, a professional organization such as a medical
practitioners association can be considered a formal organization because
the ties that the members have in general are defined by the objectives of the
organization, whereas a subgroup created through camaraderie among
colleagues can be called an informal organization. In most cases, informal
organizations cater to the personal needs of individuals as opposed to the
structure-oriented formal organizations.
Every organization is defined by its objectives that may be for the
betterment of the society in general or to address certain group issues. It can
then be said that the existence of organizations is attributable to the goals
that are set before them. To achieve these, organizations use rational
planning. This process implies identification of tasks, roles, implementation
programs, and general policies. This provides organizations a businesslike
nature.
Organizational Models
Studying organizations require conceptual models that provide
definitions and characterizations of human groups. In sociology, two of the
most prominent models are the bureaucratic organization and the collectivist
organization.
Bureaucratic Organization Model
This model is lifted from Max Weber's concept of modern Western
society. He claimed that due to the plurality of cultures and the development
of technology, modern Western societies are required to create formal
organizations that are bureaucratic in nature. These types of organizations
operate within the frame of written rules and regulations that allow for a
more efficient implementation of organizational objectives. Due to the rigid
predisposition in achieving its goals, authority figures are set in hierarchy.
These individuals are known as bureaucrats. Power is strictly relegated to
bureaucrats and not on individuals. Hence, although an individual holds
power in a bureaucratic office, that power is vested on him or her with
regard to the office that he or she holds. Upon the dissolution of that
bureaucratic office, power shall be removed from the individual.
Tasks specialization is also implemented in this type of organization,
allowing individuals to operate within their capacity. These characteristics
create an impersonal relationship among the members of the organization.
Nevertheless, informal relationships are often formed within the
bureaucracy as an adaptive response of alienated individuals.
The problem with this organizational model is that it is too deterministic
in its understanding of organizations. It failed to account for human agency,
environmental shifts, and other factors that a rigidly structured organization
may not be able to address.
Collectivist Organization Model
This organizational model responded to the issues that confronted the
bureaucratic model. Based on Karl Marx's theory on the evolution of
society, this model predicts the demise of bureaucratic organizations within
a shift from a class-based to a classless society. In this new order, the
hierarchy created in a bureaucratic society is erased to the extent that the
supervisors and workers are collectively and harmoniously functioning
toward the achievement of the organization's goals. Equality is a common
theme in this model.
The critique to this perspective is in its utopic orientation about the
hierarchy of individuals. Humans are bound to create social, economic, and
political hierarchies when in a group as one individual succeeds over the
other, given the variation in their skills and the requirements of the
environment.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How is power distributed in a bureaucratic organization model as
compared to a collectivist?
2. How does rational planning help organizations?
What are the
3. organizations?
differences
between
formal
and
informal
Extend Your Knowledge
Children who have unstable homes often end up joining informal
groups such as street gangs. It is here that they form alliances and get
acquainted with the survival strategies of living without adult supervision.
It is also here that their vulnerability to drugs and diseases take place.
This link will introduce you to Mary, a young girl who was introduced to
the world of solvent use (known as rugby in the streets of Manila). Read
how a formal organization such as the UNICEF reorients her away from
the life values that she acquired as a member of her informal group.
https://www.unicef.org/philippines/reallives_11786.html
Essential Learning
As social creatures, humans have the innate predisposition to join
organizations where they collaborate with their peers and learn values and
skills that allow them to survive societal demands. These organizations
may be formal or informal, may be small group or large, and espouse
primary or secondary relationships. It is also through memberships in
these groups that individuals learn to distance themselves from those that
they are informed to be “others.” Othering is more intensive in some
groups than in others. Intensive othering leads to violent orientations such
as racism, ethnocentrism, and even genocide.
Culminating Output
You are a project manager for an event that aims to provide
awareness on the lives of the Filipino youths. Your project for this unit
is to create a poster exhibit on the issues of the Filipino youth using the
lenses of sociology, anthropology, and political science. To do this task,
you would need nine members whose tasks should be divided into the
following: research, poster layout, and content writing. In the end, you
should be able to present three posters that tackle three issues that are
experienced by the Filipino youth. You should ensure to use the key
concepts present in all three disciplines, such as the following: power
and politics (political science), culture and human variation
(anthropology), and society and social groups (sociology). You may use
additional concepts or terms used in the three disciplines.
You will print your outputs in poster size paper and display them in
your class for viewing of your classmates and teacher. Your teacher will
rate your output based on this rubric.
Rubric
Criterion
Developing
Proficient (15)
Exemplary (20)
Issues have
Issues are
Sufficient data
poor
relevant but
are evident.
connection.
backed by less
Topic is very
data.
relevant.
(10)
Research
Score
Criterion
Developing
Proficient (15)
Exemplary (20)
Print is of poor
Layout has
Print quality is
quality. The
some irrelevant
excellent.
visual elements
variables.
Layout is clear.
Fewer than
All three
More than three
three concepts
concepts are
concepts are
are included in
included in the
included in the
the output.
output.
output
Score
(10)
Poster layout
appear
disconnected.
Content writing
Quarter Challenge
A. Pair the concepts in the box, and provide a three-sentence discussion
of the interrelation of these concepts.
Human variation
Human evolution
Social groups
Government
Ethnocentrism
Cultural development
Human agency
State
B. In at least seven sentences, provide an argument for or against each
statement.
1. Humans acquire their identities through biological means.
2. Human populations are not equal.
3. Conformity to social norms is essential for social order.
C. Visual method is a rising technique in social research such that a
researcher analyzes a social phenomenon through photographs and
videos. Using this method, analyze a social issue using five
photographs with an accompanying 250-word discussion for each
photo. Your discussion for each photo should cover the
representations that you noticed in the photo that provides an insight
on the social issue.
Unit
II
Humans and Institutions
What are the elements of human behavior and culture in groups? This
unit presents to you eight modules that address the various institutions in
which humans create and recreate their identities.
From the smallest human institution—the family—to the largest and
most complex economic organizations, this unit will lead you to understand
how humans interact with one another within social organizations.
Module 8 centers on the discussion of the family and its structure. Here,
you will be able to discuss the family's crucial role in the social
development of humans, being the primary institution that a person gets in
contact with. Modules 9 and 10 present the wider and more structured
interactions among humans and how their actions are governed and
categorized according to the existing norms of the group that they belong to.
These two modules will teach you how to distinguish different forms of
political and economic organizations within and across societies. Module 11
discusses non-state institutions and their forms of interaction with
government institutions. This presents a more transnational context to
human interaction. Module 12 presents the concept of stratification that is
commonly experienced in highly structured societies. Modules 13 and 14
relate the impact of educational systems and religion to the human social
experience. Module 15 focuses on the concepts of health and illnesses
across cultures. All these modules will be discussed in the context of social
change, which is the final module of the unit.
The flow of discussion in this unit aims to lead you to an understanding
of the human condition as predicated by social institutions. As you learn of
the various sources of your enculturation, you will have to continuously
remember this question: To what extent have I been influenced by these
institutions?
■ Demonstrate understanding of the following:
• Cultural, social, and political institutions as sets of norms and
patterns of behavior that relate to major social interests
• Social stratification as the ranking of individuals according to
wealth, power, and prestige
• Social and political inequalities as features of societies and
the global community
• Agents/institutions, processes, and outcomes of cultural,
political, and social change
■ Analyze aspects of a social organization
■ Identify one's role in social groups and institutions
■ Recognize other forms of economic transaction such as sharing,
gift exchange, and redistribution in his or her own society
■ Evaluate factors causing social, political, and cultural change
■ Advocate how human societies should adapt to such changes
Module
8
Kinship
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Trace kinship ties and social networks.
2. Compare different types of kinship based on lineage.
(Enrichment)
3. Discuss the functions of family and marriage. (Enrichment)
4. Identify the different types of families based on the number of
spouses and residential patterns. (Enrichment)
Kinship refers to the “web of social relationships” that humans form as
part of a family, which is the smallest unit of society. Ferraro and Andreatta
(2010) defined family as “a social and economic unit that consists of one or
more parents and their children.” There are several points that you can learn
from this definition.
1. A family is a socioeconomic unit. What makes a group of individuals a
family is their dependency on one another with regard to their social and
economic activities. This implies that the family acts as the primary
support group for its members as they participate in the social processes
within a society. For this reason, an individual is often disposed to
consult with family members during social and economic crises.
2. A family can have one or more parents. In the society that you grow up
in, a family usually consists of two parents—a father and a mother.
However, this is not the norm for other societies who would have one
parent, a mother or a father, or multiple parents due to multiple
marriages.
3. A family can have parents who are not married. Although the marriage
of parents is important in religious countries such as the Philippines, it is
not a prerequisite in other societies. Hence, as long as individuals are
socially and economically interdependent, they can be considered a
family. This puts into perspective the concept of common law marriage,
which is an informal union of at least two individuals who present
themselves as a couple. In popular context, this is also referred to as
cohabitating couples or domestic partners.
4. A family can have parents with same gender. Although same sex
marriage is illegal in most countries, including the Philippines, some
societies allow for the marriage of individuals with the same sex. The
United States now allows same sex marriages, which create families
with either both female or both male parents.
5. A family should have at least one child. One of the most crucial
elements of a family is the existence of children. Without a child, a
couple remains to be a couple and not a family.
Fig. 8.1.
Symbols in kinship diagrams
Big Idea
The family is the primary socioeconomic unit wherein an
individual learns his or her social roles.
As you continue with this module, familiarize yourself with the
following symbols and their meanings. These symbols are used in plotting
kinship diagrams.
The two primary purposes of a family are (1) to orient the individual of
the norms of the society and (2) to provide physical support as the
individual matures. This is seen in the two types of nuclear families.
Fig. 8.2.
Families of procreation and orientation
In Figure 8.2, the individual labeled as Ego is involved in two types of
families. Ego's family of orientation consists of her father, mother, and
brother. It is in this family that Ego first learned her society's norms and her
roles in it. This family is also her primary support group while growing up.
The nurturing processes for Ego occurred in the family of orientation.
Ego's family of procreation consists of her husband, son, and daughter. It
is in this family that Ego creates her own concept of a family upon
negotiation with her husband. It is in this family that Ego perpetuates the
values and beliefs that she has acquired in her family of orientation.
You must remember that an individual can be a part of more than one
family group. As you can see in Figure 8.2, Ego is part of two types of
families.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What is a family?
2. What is the function of the family of procreation?
3. What is the function of the family of orientation?
Kinship by Blood
One factor that allows an individual to identify another individual as a
family member is through consanguinity, popularly called as blood
relatives. This type of kinship links individuals based on their genetic
relations (i.e., their bloodline). This is referred to as descent or the socially
accepted connection between an ancestor and its succeeding generation.
Kinship connections are perceived to be of great importance in some
societies. Due to this, descent rules are created and followed. In
anthropology, there are four main descent rules that are recognized.
Unilineal Descent
This allows an individual to be affiliated to the descent of one sex group
only—either the male or the female. There are two types of unilineal
descents: matrilineal and patrilineal. Matrilineal descent leads an individual
to trace kinship relations through the female's line. This implies that the
surname and inheritances of a family are passed on from one female to the
other.
Fig. 8.3.
Matrilineal descent group
As you can notice in Figure 8.3, all of the offspring of the females were
able to acquire the darker color, which represents the descent. All the
offspring of the males received a lighter color, which symbolizes their
separation from the descent. In Asia, the Minangkabau ethnic group of West
Sumatra, Indonesia, practices matrilineage. In this society, land and property
ownership is passed on from mother to daughter, leaving the men to deal
with political and religious affairs. Matrilineal descent is also referred to as
uterine descent.
Fig. 8.4.
Young Minangkabau women attending a high-status wedding
Source:
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/∼blackwoo/photos.htm (accessed 29 October
2015)
In patrilineal descent, an individual traces his or her kinship through the
male's line only. This promotes a passing down of name and inheritance to
the male offspring only, while allowing the female offspring to be part of
another family through marriage. This is also referred to as agnatic descent.
A lot of societies in Asia are patrilineal. The most popular are the Chinese
who are highly patrilineal, enforcing a strict kinship relations traced through
the male's line.
Fig. 8.5.
Traditional Chinese family
Source:
http://weber.ucsd.edu/∼dkjordan/chin/chpict/Dingle132-small.jpg
Fig. 8.6.
Patrilineal descent
Figure 8.6 shows that the darker color is passed down to all offspring by
the males. Hence, although a female gets to receive the darker color, she is
not able to pass it onto her children. In traditional Chinese kinship books,
the only females recorded are the mothers. Female children are excluded
from the list, as they are believed to be married off and made part of another
family.
Beyond Walls 8.1
Go Online
The patriarchal orientation of families in China and parts of India
has produced a population ratio crisis that led to the lack of potential
wives for men. This link leads you to a video clip produced by The
Economist titled “Why China and India face marriage crisis?”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWwhEaFmSno
After watching the clip, write a 500-word reaction paper relating this
phenomenon to the issue of Filipina mail-ordered brides. To have a
better understanding of this other phenomenon, go to
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ivfobsWPomY.
An expansion of unilineal descent groups creates a kinship group called
the clan. This type of kinship is observed among groups of people who
believe that they have unilineal relations based on a common ancestor. The
primary difference between a clan and the earlier unilineal descent groups is
that individuals from the former cannot specify their actual relations. This
commonly renders the ancestor as a mythical figure. Among Native
Americans, ancestors are often ascribed animal characteristics. These clan
originators are labeled in anthropology as totems. Hence, clan members use
animal symbols to represent their group. In North America, totem poles are
erected by Native American clans as a form of remembrance of their
family's past.
Fig. 8.7.
Totem Pole in Canada
Source:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/the-o/2078239333/
Further expansion of clans into larger descent groups creates phratries.
Similar to clans, the identity of the kinship originator is usually unknown,
rendering him or her as a mythical being. This type of descent was observed
in the highlands of New Guinea, where kinship is traced through the male
line. Hence, the clans consider each other as brothers or fathers and sons.
According to Carman (2013), the Lenape Native Americans, who are also
known as the Delaware Indians, have three phratries that each consist of 12
clans. The names of the clans and the phratries are also based on animals
and plants. For example, the phratry of Turkey (pul-la'-ook) has the
following clans: Big Bird, Mor-har-ä-lä; Bird's Cry, Le-le-wa'-you; Eye
Pain, Moo-kwung-wa-ho'ki; Scratch the Path, Moo-har-mo-wi-kar'-nu;
Opossum Ground, O-ping-ho'-ki; Old Shin, Muh-ho-we-kä'-ken; Drift Log,
Tong-o-nä-o-to; Living in Water, Nool-a-mar-lar'-mo; Root Digger, Muhkrent-har'-ne; Red Face, Mur-karm-huk-se; Pine Region, Koo-wä-ho'ke;
Ground Scratcher, Oo-ckuk'-ham. The totems of the clans are evident in the
seal of the Lenape phratries.
Fig. 8.8.
Seal of the Lenape
Source:
http://images.sodahead.com/profiles/0/0/1/6/2/4/1/4/9/indians127152821051.png
The final type of unilineal descent group is called moiety. Although
similar with phratries in having multiple clans within it, a moiety differs
from a phratry in its function of creating a sustainable systemic balance
within a society. A society can be divided into two distinct moieties that
perform reciprocal responsibilities with one another. This characteristic
ensures equality of access to economic and political values. The Kariera of
the Australian aborigines practices a kinship system that allows for the
intermarriage between moieties, ensuring a stronger bond between the two
groups.
Bilateral Descent
Unlike the unilineal descent that tends to focus on one line of a kinship,
bilateral descent allows an individual to trace kinship ties on both sides of
the family. This means that an individual can recognize both his or her
parents' relatives as his or her own relatives. In this type of kinship,
everyone knows how he or she is connected to everyone. This provides a
limit on the extent by which kinship ties can be recognized. Hence, unlike in
a unilineal descent that can trace relations to several generations from the
point person (Ego), bilateral descent can only trace Ego's immediate family.
In some cases, ties with the nuclear family can be extended to family
members of the spouses. This kinship grouping is called kindred. As this
type of group is often united by a common relative, it risks of dissolution
when connections to the common relative is lost. For example, if a spouse
dies, the connection between the living spouse and the deceased family may
be severed, which results in the dissolution of the kindred group. Most
families in the Philippines practice bilateral descent grouping. Figure 8.9
presents the kinship ties of Ego to her family and that of her husband's.
Big Idea
There is a plurality of family arrangements across human
societies.
Fig. 8.9.
Kinship diagram of a bilateral descent group
Beyond Walls 8.2
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
Your role in this activity is that of a genealogist who has been
commissioned by the city government to trace the lineage of an
influential member of the city as part of its founding celebration. This
influential person could be a politician, a businessman, a school
administrator, a religious leader, or any individual who is believed to be
a pillar of the city.
As a genealogist, your task is to identify the kin of this individual to
as many generations before the present as possible. Present your
findings using the symbolisms in making a kinship diagram. Append a
one-page discussion of your diagram highlighting the type of lineage
this individual's family has and why. You will present your output to the
city government official who will evaluate your work based on its
comprehensiveness, accuracy, and clarity.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What is the difference between bilateral descent and unilineal
descent?
2. How are moieties formed?
3. What kind of society is associated with patriarchal descent?
Kinship by Marriage
Marriage is defined as the “socially or ritually recognized union or legal
contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between
them, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws”
(Haviland et al., 2011). It is believed that all societies have a form of
marriage that makes it a cultural universal.
Cultural variation produces differing perspectives and practices of
relating to marriage. For example, marriage in the Philippines implies being
officiated into the union by either a religious leader or a representative of
the government such as a city or municipal mayor or a court judge. The
Tsimane of Bolivia practices an alternative perspective wherein “a couple is
considered married if they sleep together under the same roof in a socially
recognized way for more than just a brief period of time” (Winking, 2005).
Using a functionalist perspective, marriage serves several functions.
First, it regulates mating and reproduction. Second, it creates a system that
allows for sexual division of labor. Third, it provides for a family dynamics
that ensures the provision of needs of children. Last, it perpetuates economic
institutions that are based on family systems.
Fig. 8.10.
A Tsimane husband with his two wives and children
Source:
https://www.unm.edu/∼tsimane/photos1/TsimaneFamily_small.jpg
There are four types of families based on marriage systems: patrifocal
and matrifocal, monogamous, polygamous, and extended.
Patrifocal and Matrifocal
This type of family is focused on one parent: a father (patrifocal) or a
mother (matrifocal). This type of family is often associated with the terms
patriarchal, the rule of the father, and matriarchal, the rule of the mother. It
does not solely imply that there is only one parent. In some situations, one
parent is deemed more important than the other due to the economic or
political positions he or she holds in the family and in society.
Monogamous
This type of family consists of a single couple and their child or
children. This is also referred to as the nuclear family. Most societies in the
world have this type of family. Serial monogamy occurs in societies where
remarriage is allowed after a divorce or death of the other spouse.
Polygamous
This type of family consists of several parents and their children. There
are two types of polygamy: polyandry and polygyny. Polyandry is a
marriage pattern wherein a woman is allowed to marry several men. In
Tibet, women are allowed to marry several husbands who are at times
brothers. This practice is called fraternal polyandry. The primary reason for
allowing this practice is the need to preserve land ownership through
generations. If brothers are to marry different women, they will need to
divide the land, which would have detrimental effects on the entire family
that is based on agriculture.
Beyond Walls 8.3
Go Online
Polyandry is practiced in some parts of India. This link leads to a
documentary made by CNN on the practice of polyandry in Himachal
Pradesh, India: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u7HKmu3eMEk
After watching the clip, answer the following questions:
1. Why do husbands consent to this atypical setup?
2. How are spousal obligations managed in these types of
households?
3. What role does education play in the practice of polyandry?
Polygyny is a marriage practice that allows a man to marry several
women. Most Islamic societies allow this practice. In some cases, these
women are sisters, making it a sororal polygyny. This is sometimes
preferred to facilitate a less competitive environment in the home, as sisters
would normally be more supportive as co-wives than women coming from
different families.
Fig. 8.11.
A Moslem man with his wives
Source:
www.puterea.ro/media/article/img620f/47/47616-3.jpg
Extended Family
This type of family has several married couples and their children living
in one household. This can consist of the married parents and their married
children living in one house. Filipinos and other Asian societies are known
to practice extended family arrangements as a form of securing care for the
elderly members of the family.
In some cases, rituals allow for the inclusion of individuals into a family.
The compadrazgo system that is popular in Spanish-influenced regions of
the world is an example of this. In this situation, individuals not originally
part of the family are made extended family members by being godparents
of a child of one of the actual family members. In the Philippines, this is
practiced in our concept of having ninong and ninang for occasions such as
baptism, confirmation, and marriage.
Reconstituted Family
Though not part of the traditional categories of families, reconstituted
families are a growing percentage of household classification in countries
allowing divorce and legal separations. Such families consist of spouses and
children whom the spouses may have had prior to their marriage or union.
In this type of family, the current spouses were previously married and
had children. Upon the dissolution of their previous marriages, these
individuals remarried and created a new family by bringing in their children
from their past marriages and often birthing their own. Concepts such as
stepmothers, half brothers, and stepsisters are all part of the existence of
reconstituted families.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the types of kinship formation?
2. What are the different types of polygamy?
3. Why is marriage important in many societies?
Postmarital Residency Rules
One of the biggest questions that newlyweds have to answer is where to
live and build a family after marriage. Every society has its own rules and
traditions on postmarital residency. Anthropology has identified seven major
residency patterns: patrilocal, matrilocal, avunculocal, neolocal, natalocal,
matrifocal, and andambilocal.
Patrilocal Residence
Upon marriage, the woman is expected to transfer to the residence of her
husband's father. Her children will be raised by her husband's family and be
integrated to their lineage, allowing for the creation of a patrilineal descent.
Virilocal residence is a subset of this practice that focuses only on the
transfer of the woman from her parents' residence to that of her husband's
without consideration for the creation of a patrilineage.
Matrilocal Residence
Upon marriage, the man is expected to take residence with his wife's
mother's area, where they are expected to raise their children and integrate
them to the maternal line, creating a matrilineal descent. Uxorilocal
residence is a less complex rule that merely requires the husband to move in
to his wife's mother's household without consideration for the creation of a
matrilineage.
Neolocal Residence
This is an arrangement that requires both spouses to leave their
households and create their own at times even in a different locality. This
supports the creation of nuclear households and is commonly experienced in
developed and industrialized societies. A nuclear family essentially consists
of a parent and a child.
Avunculocal Residence
This is a complex residency pattern as it requires two residence
transfers. Upon marriage, the couple practices a form of virilocality and
raises their children in the household of the husband's father. However, upon
reaching adulthood, these children will have to be relocated with their
mother's brother and live with him and his household which may consist of
his wife and young children and the other adult male offspring of his sisters.
This practice allows for the creation of a patrilineage.
Natalocal Residence
This arrangement allows both spouses to remain with their own
households after marriage. The couple will have to arrange for meetings as
the two are not living under one household. Their children are allowed to
choose which household they would join. Should they choose to join their
father's household, they will be integrated in a patrilineal descent. However,
if they decide to join their mother's household, they will be made part of a
matrilineal descent.
Matrifocal Residence
This type of residency rule arises when the father is economically and
physically unable to provide support for the family, thereby ascribing the
role of sole provider and caregiver to the woman. In this situation, all of the
children reside with their mother who is part of her mother's household.
This is different from the concept of uxorilocality or even matrilocality, as
both patterns allow for the cohabitation of the husband and the wife.
Ambilocal Residence
This type of residence pattern allows the couple to choose to live either
with the wife's mother's area or the husband's father's area. This often
creates an extended family, as several married children and married couples
may cohabit in one household.
Transnational Families
Due to globalization and transnational movements of people, families
tend to practice alternative forms of residency patterns that are not based on
lineage perpetuation, but more so on economic reasons such as job offers,
educational advancement, and job placements. This creates transnational
families or families whose members reside separately across territories. The
overseas Filipino worker (OFW) phenomenon experienced by a
considerable number of Filipinos contribute to the growing number of
transnational families as Filipino parents reside outside the country to work
while their children remain in the home country to study.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the factors that allow for the formation of transnational
families?
2. What are the different types of postmarital residency rules?
3. What are the characteristics of a nuclear family residence?
Politics of Kinship
Kinship does not only create social ties among individuals. In some
cases, politics and kinship are interrelated, allowing for the creation of
political alliances and dynasties. A political dynasty refers to the continuous
political rule of one family. This can be in the form of the succession of rule
or in the occupancy of several political positions by one family.
Due to the compadrazgo system, political alliances are also created,
which is based not on agreed political ideologies or platforms but more on a
pseudo-kinship basis. Due to the vulnerability of this type of governance to
forms of corruption, laws are enacted to prevent its occurrence. For
example, the 1987 Philippine Constitution states in Article II Section 26 that
“the State shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for public service,
and prohibit political dynasties as may be defined by law.” Nevertheless,
due to the varying interpretation of the law, political dynasties still pervade
in the Philippine political setting.
Big Idea
The social structures of a society define the type of kinship
practiced by its members.
Extend Your Knowledge
The issue of political dynasties has pervaded the Philippine political
arena. Those who are for political dynasties claim that banning qualified
individuals from public office based on having elected family members
would only stop the general public from experiencing quality governance.
Those who are opposed to the practice claim that whether qualified or
not, these individuals should not be allowed to run for public office due to
the undue influence of family members who have mastery of the political
mechanism. The following link leads to an article written by Lila RamosShahani, which attempted to provide a perspective in answering the
question:
Why
regulate
political
dynasties?
Go
to
http://www.philstar.com/opinion/2015/08/10/1486177/why-regulatepolitical-dynasties.
Essential Learning
The family is the smallest unit of human organization through which
an individual gets initiated to the roles and rules that he or she will have
to perform in his or her society. The concept of family accommodates
both blood and social relations. As such, it is a fluid term especially when
applied to the ever globalizing world where the relationship of individuals
are framed within multilayered contexts relating to environment,
economy, geography, and technology.
Module
9
Political and Leadership Structures
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Analyze social and political structures. (Enrichment)
2. Differentiate the types of political organizations. (Enrichment)
3. Differentiate the different forms of legitimacy of authority.
(Enrichment)
Can you imagine life without leaders or governments? You may wonder
if that scenario is even possible. In this module, you will learn how other
societies organize their political lives that may be distinct from what you are
aware of. This module is divided into two main parts. The first part
discusses the types of political organizations created by humans. The second
part discusses the types of authority and legitimacy present in human
societies that allow for the rise of leaders.
Political Organization
A political organization is any entity that is participating in a political
process. In Module 5, you have been introduced to the concept of politics
that involves the distribution and allocation of scarce values such as power
and prestige. Elman Service (1962), a political anthropologist, identified
four types of sociopolitical organizations. He argued that these political
organizations function in consideration of their economic orientation.
Bands
A band is the least complex form of political organization, as it has
neither a rigid form of governance nor a structured form of leadership. A
band typically consists of 20–50 individuals who are usually related to one
another by virtue of kinship. Due to the close ties between members of this
group, coercion as a form of receiving compliance is not an option.
Individuals are made to follow group decision through social mechanisms
such as gossiping, ostracizing, and being ridiculed.
This society is chiefly based on foraging, which is also known as
hunting and gathering. This type of economic subsistence allows for greater
mobility of the group as they follow animals and other food sources.
Decision-making is often made by the entire group, with the eldest member
acting as the facilitator. This form of leadership is informal, as the extent of
the leader's power lies only upon his or her capacity to influence the course
of dialog in the group. He or she can, by no means, coerce anyone in the
group to do a task that the other does not want to perform.
Bands are egalitarian in social composition. This implies that individuals
in the group have equal access to resources and values. Reciprocity is a
primary form of exchange among the members. Individuals who have lesser
capacity to hunt or gather have equal access to the food that other members
are able to produce. This arrangement produces a form of an economic
safety net, wherein every member of the group is assured of basic needs
such as food and water. This is observed even if the member is not able to
produce on a particular day, as food and almost everything else are
communally owned. The drawback of this setting is the creation of free
riders or those who would partake of their share of the community's
resources without any attempt to contribute. In such cases, bands would
usually employ noncoercive tactics such as ridiculing and gossiping.
Beyond Walls 9.1
Go Online
Visit this link to watch a documentary produced by GMA Network
about the Bataks of Palawan. This video presents the community life of
the Bataks, a band (a group of people), within the context of population
decline and environmental changes. After watching the clip, write a
500-word reaction paper that discusses the potential impacts of climate
change on the lifeways of a band.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qV9HWDLhcvk
Tribes
A tribe is a political organization that consists of segmentary lineages.
This type of kinship relation is marked by loyalty per family cluster or
segment. An individual's loyalty primarily lies on his or her immediate
family, followed by his or her cousins, and then his or her distant cousins.
This type of kinship grouping allows for the creation of interdependent
generations. This also creates a political organization that is less distinct
from kinship organizations. This means that the position of the father in the
family as the prime decision maker and his position in society will most
likely be similar. The Maasai tribe of Kenya have strong segmentary
lineages that allow for generational solidarity of warriors coming from the
same age group.
Tribes are less mobile than bands, as their form of economic subsistence
requires a degree of settlement. Most tribes are either horticultural (shifting
agriculture) or pastoral (tending animals). These types of economic systems
require individuals to settle in one area for a specific period either to let
their animals graze (pastoralism) or to harvest their crops (horticultural).
This supports the need to create an informal form of leadership that is based
on need.
The leaders that are chosen in this type of organization are individuals
who are believed to possess special skills or aptitudes that relate to the
economic activity. Hence, should a younger and an older hunter be in a
debate about a decision, the decision-making power shall be accorded by the
members of the society to the person with greater skills in hunting without
considering age. Similar to the leaders of bands, the leaders in a tribe have
no concrete political power over their members, except in areas when group
concerns are in place.
Fig. 9.1.
A group of Maasai tribesmen of Kenya
Source:
http://www.lionsstaffanstorp.se/wpcontent/uploads/2013/09/Kulturnatten2013-6-1.jpg
The segmented nature of a tribe's social dynamics allows for an
economic system that uses redistribution of commodities among social
segments through the process of tribute. A tribute is a form of gift that may
consist of wealth, food, or other materials given to a central figure who in
turn redistributes the accumulated goods to the other members of society.
Through this process, the products of one group is shared and consumed by
the other groups.
Chiefdoms
The ancient Mayans were known for their complex and elaborate
political system that incorporated religion, kinship, and politics. The Mayan
political organization is an example of a chiefdom, as it embodied its
characteristics that include a political leader with an advisory council, a
leader who exercises power that is based on legitimacy, and the existence of
social stratification.
Fig. 9.2.
The ancient Mayans, depicted in wall paintings
Source:
https://unpredictableblog.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/ancient-mayans.jpg
A chiefdom is more complex than a tribe, as this political organization
consists of a few local communities who subscribe to the power and rule of
a leader who has absolute power on them. This absolute power is derived
from the perceived relation of the leader to supernatural forces and powers,
which is a form of legitimizing factor. As long as the members of the
communities believe that their leader is a direct descendant of their gods,
this leader maintains his or her sovereignty in the land. Once the belief of
people shifts, this leader almost instantaneously loses power.
Similar to the tribe, this political organization is tied with horticulture
and pastoralism. The same economic process of redistribution through
tribute collection is practiced in chiefdom, just like in a tribe. What
distinguishes a chiefdom from a tribe is the existence of social stratification
that segregates society into the elite and the commoner. The elites are often
the relatives of the ruler and are also believed to have divinity or
connections to the supernatural.
Big Idea
Political systems vary per society depending on their
environment and economic systems.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How does religion relate to the type of political system that a
society chooses?
2. What role does economic subsistence play in the formation of a
political organization?
3. How is power exercised in the different types of political
organizations?
States and Nations
You have learned in an earlier module that a state is different from a
nation, as state refers to a group of people sharing similar culture and
political history, whereas nation refers to a political organization united by a
common set of laws.
A state uses absolute power in directing the path of a society. To attain
societal goals and objectives, a state uses complete political coerciveness,
which may come in the form of armed personnel, strict laws, and rigid
governmental policies. This provides a marginal intersection between
politics and kinship, as both are required not to interact in the guise of
professionalism and incorruptibility.
The primary form of economic subsistence in this political organization
is market exchange. Standardized currencies are used as a medium of
exchange for commodities, unlike in a band where a commodity or service
is exchanged with another commodity or service, which are often deemed
by both parties to be of equal value. The differentiated access to production
and capital creates the formation and perpetuation of class and caste
systems.
Fig. 9.3.
Pyramid of power in ancient states
As states consist of actors with varying interests and assertions, social
rules are implemented in the form of laws. These laws are created to
manage the interaction among individuals and between the individuals and
the state. As a citizen of a country, an individual is subjected to the legal
norms in the territory. These norms may include paying taxes, rendering
military service, and contributing to the political life in the society. For
example, in the event of war, citizens may be required to render military
service for their country.
In South Korea, all males are required to render military service and
undergo training for 21 months despite social status. In the Philippines,
some of the obligations of its citizens include (1) payment of at most 32% of
one's income as income tax to the government, (2) payment of 12% value
added tax (VAT) for all commodities and services purchased, (3) completion
of the National Service Training Program (NSTP) or the Reserve Officers'
Training Corps (ROTC) while in college, and (4) recognition of the
authority of government officials (e.g., police officers, lawmakers).
Being a citizen of a country also entails the enjoyment of certain
privileges that are labeled as rights. There are two types of rights that are
enjoyed by individuals as members of state: natural and legal. Natural rights
are those that are expected to be enjoyed by all individuals, regardless of
citizenship. These rights are derived from the basic elements of individuals
being humans. Some of these rights include the right to life, the right to
liberty or freedom, and the right to property. Legal rights are those that are
awarded to an individual by the state as part of its culture, traditions, and
norms. Hence a Muslim-dominated state may provide its citizens a different
set of legal rights as compared to a Christian-dominated state. Some
examples of legal rights are (1) the right to vote, (2) the right to privacy, and
(3) the right to join formal organizations.
Extend Your Knowledge
Here is a copy of the Bill of Rights of the Philippines, which states
the rights to be enjoyed by its citizens.
THE 1987 CONSTITUTION OF THE
REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
ARTICLE III
BILL OF RIGHTS
Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property
without due process of law, nor shall any person be denied the equal
protection of the laws.
Section 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons,
houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures of
whatever nature and for any purpose shall be inviolable, and no search
warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to be
determined personally by the judge after examination under oath or
affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and
particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things
to be seized.
Section 3.
(1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be
inviolable except upon lawful order of the court, or when public safety or
order requires otherwise, as prescribed by law.
(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section
shall be inadmissible for any purpose in any proceeding.
Section 4. No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of
expression, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances.
Section 5. No law shall be made respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The free exercise and
enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or
preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required
for the exercise of civil or political rights.
Section 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the
limits prescribed by law shall not be impaired except upon lawful order of
the court. Neither shall the right to travel be impaired except in the
interest of national security, public safety, or public health, as may be
provided by law.
Section 7. The right of the people to information on matters of public
concern shall be recognized. Access to official records, and to documents
and papers pertaining to official acts, transactions, or decisions, as well as
to government research data used as basis for policy development, shall
be afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as may be provided by
law.
Section 8. The right of the people, including those employed in the
public and private sectors, to form unions, associations, or societies for
purposes not contrary to law shall not be abridged.
Section 9. Private property shall not be taken for public use without
just compensation.
Section 10. No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be
passed.
Section 11. Free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and
adequate legal assistance shall not be denied to any person by reason of
poverty.
Section 12.
(1) Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense
shall have the right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to
have competent and independent counsel preferably of his own choice. If
the person cannot afford the services of counsel, he must be provided
with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the
presence of counsel.
(2) No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other
means which vitiate the free will shall be used against him. Secret
detention places, solitary, incommunicado, or other similar forms of
detention are prohibited.
(3) Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this or
Section 17 hereof shall be inadmissible in evidence against him.
(4) The law shall provide for penal and civil sanctions for violations
of this section as well as compensation to and rehabilitation of victims of
torture or similar practices, and their families.
Section 13. All persons, except those charged with offenses
punishable by reclusion perpetua when evidence of guilt is strong, shall,
before conviction, be bailable by sufficient sureties, or be released on
recognizance as may be provided by law. The right to bail shall not be
impaired even when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is
suspended. Excessive bail shall not be required.
Section 14.
(1) No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without
due process of law.
(2) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be presumed
innocent until the contrary is proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard
by himself and counsel, to be informed of the nature and cause of the
accusation against him, to have a speedy, impartial, and public trial, to
meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process to secure
the attendance of witnesses and the production of evidence in his behalf.
However, after arraignment, trial may proceed notwithstanding the
absence of the accused provided that he has been duly notified and his
failure to appear is unjustifiable.
Section 15. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be
suspended except in cases of invasion or rebellion when the public safety
requires it.
Section 16. All persons shall have the right to a speedy disposition of
their cases before all judicial, quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies.
Section 17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against
himself.
Section 18.
(1) No person shall be detained solely by reason of his political
beliefs and aspirations.
(2) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except as a
punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.
Section 19.
(1) Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel, degrading or
inhuman punishment inflicted. Neither shall the death penalty be
imposed, unless, for compelling reasons involving heinous crimes, the
Congress hereafter provides for it. Any death penalty already imposed
shall be reduced to reclusion perpetua.
(2) The employment of physical, psychological, or degrading
punishment against any prisoner or detainee or the use of substandard or
inadequate penal facilities under subhuman conditions shall be dealt with
by law.
Section 20. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of
a poll tax.
Section 21. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment
for the same offense. If an act is punished by a law and an ordinance,
conviction or acquittal under either shall constitute a bar to another
prosecution for the same act.
Section 22. No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
Beyond Walls 9.2
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
Your are a political adviser to the president of the Philippines. You
provide the president with key action points for pressing issues. Think
of a relevant issue that our country is facing today. Your task is to draft a
two-page briefer for the president, which includes the background of the
issue, the description of the stakeholders, and the potential action points.
Your teacher will act as the president who will evaluate your output
based on accuracy of data and feasibility of proposed action. This
activity can be done in groups.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the elements of the state?
2. Why are social rules implemented by the state?
3. What does citizenship entail?
The shift from one type of political organization to another involves
several factors that include economic adaptation, environmental conditions,
and social structure. Changes in environmental conditions produce
alternative economic systems that require modifications of the social
structure. When these conditions occur, the political system also adapts and
shifts to a more suitable form. One landmark example of this is the phase of
the Agricultural Revolution of the Neolithic period. According to Gordon
Childe, the shift in the world's climate altered its landscape that resulted in
limited sources of food. Bands that were highly dependent on hunting and
gathering had fewer food sources. This environmental shift created
pressures on their economic systems, enabling them to adopt new forms of
technology and economic subsistence. The development of farming allowed
for the creation of permanent settlement that necessitated the establishment
of rules to govern individual behaviors that were meant to maintain social
order. This produced state-like entities that paved the way for modern states.
Traditional perspectives on the development of political organizations
tend to be linear and limited, stating that the earliest stage of political
organization development commences with the band and culminates with
the state. Just like any theory on transition, this is prone to problems, as it
promotes a highly deterministic view of society—it is in a constant process
of development toward an end. But as to what end it is and who determines
what kind of end can be considered as the “best” and most ideal form, this
perspective remains mum.
A more inclusive perspective accommodates the plausibility of having
multiple forms of political organizations that are functioning parallel to one
another within the varying context of each environment. This perspective
highlights the reality of cultural variation and exercises the lens of cultural
relativism in understanding societies.
Authority and Legitimacy
The extent of a leader's power relies on how much his or her followers
accord him or her with it. This leads to a discussion on the reasons that
leaders rise and how they maintain power over individuals. According to
Max Weber, a 20th century sociologist, every leader has some form of
justification as to why he or she should be accorded with such power. He
organized these reasons into three categories of legitimacy of authority:
legal, traditional, and charismatic.
Legal authority is achieved by a leader through the process of following
established codes and procedures governing the allocation and distribution
of power and resources within a society. Leaders who are ruling under the
clout of this authority have been either elected or appointed to office
following the existing laws of the land. The extent as to which this type of
leaders can wield power is limited to what the codified laws of the society
accords him or her.
Traditional authority is a form of leadership legitimacy that highlights
the right of a leader to rule based on inheritance of the title. People under
the leadership of a ruler with traditional authority accept the latter's exercise
of power as it has been the status quo in the society since their forefathers.
The rule of monarchs and their allies in both patrimonial and feudal regimes
are examples of this.
Charismatic authority creates a type of leadership that is based on the
personal attachment of the subordinates to the ruler whose characteristics,
experiences, or even skills are believed to be extraordinary, or maybe even
supernatural. Due to this, most of the ruler's followers are devoted to him or
her without regard as to whether the authority of the ruler is accepted within
the legal framework of the society or that he or she has not been part of a
royal lineage.
These types of authority and legitimacy are not mutually exclusive, as
some can be combined to produce other forms of leadership justification.
For example, institutional charisma is a combination of charismatic and
legal authority. This kind of authority is usually observed among religious
institutions wherein the leader's authority is accepted based on his or her
charisma, but his or her exercise of power is limited by the legal structures
of the church. Another combination is called familial charisma, which is a
combination of traditional and charismatic authority. This is often observed
in kingship rules as individuals recognize the right of the king to rule based
on his inheritance of the position and his innate extraordinary capacities.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What is the basis of the leadership of a charismatic leader?
2. What are the differences between legal authority and traditional
authority?
3. How does institutional charisma differ from familial charisma?
Essential Learning
Political systems are key elements of a society's culture with the chief
function of promoting social order with regard to its economic systems
and environmental demands. Just like any part of culture, political
systems are structural tools used by human populations to be able to
survive in their environments. It is due to this characteristic that there is a
plurality of political systems across human populations.
Module
10
Economic Organization
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Analyze economic organization and its impacts on the lives of
people in the society.
2. Differentiate the types of economic subsistence. (Enrichment)
The societal world has been through several changes, advancements, and
innovation since the dawn of the Neolithic stage. Consequently, these
changes have greatly affected the social, cultural, political, and most
especially economic aspect of societies. Due to various and numerous
technological improvements, the whole economic processes have also been
developed. Form (2014) argued that the shift in the technological capacity
of societies has allowed for “the formation and extension of markets,
modifications of property relations (such as the change from feudal lordpeasant relations to contractual proprietor-tenant relations), and changes in
the organization of labor (such as the change from independent craftsmen to
factories).”
Fig. 10.1.
Evolution of economy
Adapted from: https://johnandsydney.wikispaces.com/file/view/evolution
_of_the_economy.jpg/220938566/800x682/evolution_of_
the_economy.jpg
Figure 10.1 is an illustration of how economy started from the ancient
times up to the modern times, as it highlights the money-driven economy
represented by casinos more than the simplistic hunting tradition. This
module presents the elements and processes of an economic organization.
Economic Processes
Reciprocity
In most situations, when you give something away, you expect
something in return. This kind of situation reflects the concept of
reciprocity. This economic process entails the exchange of commodities
between parties, often on an individual basis. It is also a binding method
which holds people, peers, and families together (Anthropology, 2008). In
reciprocity, there are no goods and services lost because it is a circular
process wherein you just receive and return the favor. Barter is the most
common form of reciprocity, as this process includes the exchange of
commodities between individuals.
According to Marshall Sahlins (1965), there are three major types of
reciprocity. See Table 10.1.
Table 10.1. Sahlins's Types of Reciprocity
Type
Generalized reciprocity
Characterization
Example
Gift giving without any
Giving birthday presents to a
expectation of immediate
friend
return.
Balanced reciprocity
Expecting immediate return
Selling goods and services in
from any given favor. The
the market
value of the commodities is
expected to be equal.
Negative reciprocity
The exchange tends to favor
A merchant selling fake
one party over the other, as the
commodities at prices of the
value of the goods for
original and genuine items
exchange is unequal.
Beyond Walls 10.1
Go Online
This link leads to a video on how indigenous people understand and
use water. Through this video, you will see the concept of generalized
reciprocity as practiced by indigenous groups.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=keRf2_Dc0No
After watching the video, create a poster that promotes the theme,
“Water is life.” You should be able to incorporate in your work the
concept of generalized reciprocity.
Transfers
When resources from one individual or organization are given to another
with no expectation of return, an economic transfer is in place. This type of
economic process allows for the redistribution of resources within an
economic system.
Some examples of this process include the transfer of financial aids,
government subsidies, and social security. Due to the nature of these
transfers, individuals and organizations tend to be reliant on these to
mitigate their economic problems. To say that these economic transactions
have no immediate bearing on the participating individuals and
organizations is inaccurate. In fact, some critics claim that such transfers
have underlying agenda, such as when foreign governments transfer
resources to financially struggling organizations in the form of loans, grants,
and subsidies to promote their organizational policies.
Redistribution
Economic redistribution occurs when the resources of one, several
individuals, or groups are collected and distributed proportionally or equally
to participating members. Two of the best examples of redistribution are
progressive income tax systems and charity donations. For instance,
progressive income tax systems allow for a process of ensuring that the
poorer members of society are given ample resources to cover their basic
needs through the imposition of higher taxes among the wealthy; this is a
form of redistribution. On the other hand, when wealthy people make
charity donations, they get similar effects that are highly beneficial for them.
These donations can affect their social conscience or social image, allowing
them to gain public recognition and admiration. In less complex societies,
this can be seen in the form of a tribute, a process where members of society
give gifts to their chief, expecting that the latter would ensure their group's
economic and political security.
The marriage tradition of patrilineal societies known as bride price, or
the transferring of wealth from the man's family to the woman's family as a
form of gift prior to the wedding is an example of how redistribution occurs
on a micro level. Figure 10.2 shows the type of gifts a bride in Vanuatu
usually receives as a gift from her groom's family.
Fig. 10.2.
Bride price in Vanuatu
Source:
http://www.ecotripsos.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/afrika2.jpg
On a community level, an example of redistribution is the native
American practice of potlatch, which is composed of feasting, speeches, and
gift giving to improve the public figure of the giver. In these events, the
giver provides a feast wherein his social status is affirmed by the amount of
gifts that participants would give him.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What is economic transfer?
2. How is a bride price an example of redistribution?
3. What are the different types of reciprocity?
Market Transactions
Market is referred to as the exchange of goods and services that involves
buying and selling processes. However, it is a not a simple process of
exchanging materials, goods, and services. It involves several elements and
transactions. Market is about making money, capital, income, and growth
(Women and Economy, 2011).
Humans have several needs and wants that are deemed as bases of
market sellers for producing goods and services. After the production of
goods and services, everything is brought to the market for the purpose of
selling. Buyers are then expected to purchase the available market supplies
(goods and services) for the purpose of consumption and satisfying their
needs. These market transactions will continue to happen as long as there
are buyers, sellers, supplies, and demands in society.
The key element that separates market transaction from reciprocity and
redistribution is the use of standardized currency. This means that you
cannot buy a can of soda from the grocery by giving a chicken that you
raised in your backyard.
Moreover, market transactions may affect not only part of the economic
aspect of human society; it affects the other societal and economic aspects
as a whole. One key argument against market economy is its delimiting
effect on the lives of participating individuals.
Economics, or a system of sharing limited resources, is really just one aspect of human
existence, but in a market economy, economics becomes more important than everything
else. Health, the environment, community—all of the physical, social, religious, and
emotional aspects of our lives are subsumed or taken over by the economic aspects of our
lives (Women and Economy, 2011).
Market and State
What do you think is the relationship between market and state?
Basically, market involves all the human actions associated with economic
aspects. On the other hand, the state serves as the institution that protects
and maintains economic balance through its economic laws and policies.
Ferarro et al. (2010) argues that “societies with self-developed market
economies have to decide as to what extent they would allow free markets
or the government to control the economy.” This relates to the often
dichotomous perspective on the relation of the state and the market: the free
hand of the market or the heavy hand of the state. The first option, the free
hand of the market, promotes an unbridled economic exchange between
people and organizations in their pursuit of profit and surplus. The second
option, heavy hand of the state, promotes a highly structured and codified
economic engagement of individuals and organizations as mandated by
state-led procedures. In the most ideal setting, the state, through its
government, should work hand in hand with the economic sectors of its
society to ensure economic and even political stability.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What is the role of the state in market transactions?
2. What is the essence of a market?
3. How are market transactions distinct from reciprocity and
redistribution?
Types of Economic Subsistence
Due to varying environmental conditions and other social factors such as
family organization and gender dynamics, human societies have created
numerous ways to address their economic needs. In the 19th and early 20th
centuries, anthropologists such as Edward B. Tylor and Lewis Henry
Morgan created categorizations that were used to classify human groups that
are believed to be following a unilinear evolutionary pattern that progresses
from savagery to civilization. This theory of society has long been debunked
due to its inaccurate and racist provocations. Nevertheless, it has paved the
way for a differentiated analysis of human subsistence patterns.
Modern anthropologists subscribe to four categories of economic
subsistence that accepts the diversity of human population without giving
privilege to one category over the other. These four categories are foraging,
horticulture, pastoralism, and agriculture.
Big Idea
Technology and environment define the type of economic
systems that a society uses.
Foraging
One of the most ancient types of subsistence pattern is known as
foraging. During ancient times, people lived in the simplest way by being
highly dependent on their environment. Hunting for animals and gathering
wild plants were their most common activities. O'Neil (2011) further
described the group's activities: “They do not plant crops and the only
domesticated animals that they usually have are dogs. These useful animals
often have multiple functions for foraging peoples. They serve as pets,
hunting aids, watch-animals, camp refuse scavengers, and even surplus food
when needed.”
Due to the type of activities that they had, their form of technology was
also simple— ranging from digging sticks, to hunting spears, and to other
crude forms of hunting materials. Human power and muscle had been their
source in performing economic roles. Most tasks and work labor were
divided according to gender. There were specific tasks, and roles that were
associated with men and with women. Hunting wild animals were for men,
and gathering plants are for women.
In terms of settlement, the foragers were considered to be the early
nomads. Nomads are individuals or group of people who stay in a place for
a short period of time. These people usually built temporary dwellings in a
certain area for the purpose of survival. The length of their stay in a specific
area is highly dependent on the availability of resources, such as food and
water, in that area. Climate variability affected the length of stay of nomads
in the area as they adapted to the resource limitation per season in a region.
This implies a more consistent movement dependent on type of season.
Fig. 10.3.
Foragers in the North American Subarctic (20th century)
According to anthropologists, there are three major types of foraging
subsistence patterns. See Table 10.2.
Table 10.2. Types of Foraging Patterns
Type of Foraging
Characteristics and Description
Examples
Type of Foraging
Pedestrian
Characteristics and Description
Examples
Hunting and gathering on foot was
Well-known pedestrian foragers
the simplest way of living and
were the Australian aborigines,
survival. Foragers mostly occupied
the Sanspeakers of Southwest
riversides, valleys, and grasslands.
Africa, the pygmies of West
A simple digging stick served as
Central Africa, most Native
the tool of early foragers.
Americans in California, and the
Paiutes of the Great Basin in
Western North America.
Equestrian
Foragers hunted large mammals
North American equestrian
while on horseback, which served
foragers are those in the Great
as their mode of transportation.
Plains in the late 19th century.
Equestrians were larger and more
mobile. This society was
dominated by men.
Aquatic
Foragers hunted aquatic animals
Well-known aquatic foragers lived
such as fish, mollusks, and other
on the Northwest Coast of North
marine animals.
America from the Klamath River
of California to the Aleutian
Islands of Alaska.
Today, there are still several groups of people that practice foraging as a
form of subsistence. The Batak group in Palawan is an example of this.
Fig. 10.4.
Batak children of Palawan
Source:
http://cfile233.uf.daum.net/image/2279DC50558956850B543E
Pastoral
Pastoralism is a subsistence pattern that is primarily focused on
“tending herds of large animals” (O'Neil, 2011). Various kinds of animals
available in their environment became the biggest source of the survival of
the pastoralists. These animals eat only plants and grass, so they are
domesticated herbivores. The most common animals tended by pastoralist
societies are sheep, deer, goat, cattle, and horses.
Men appear to be more aggressive toward outsiders, but they are very
much cooperative within the group they belong to. These men are often
involved in making fast economic decisions, as the survival of the group is
often reliant on external forces such as drought, weather variability, and
threat of other predators.
Fig. 10.5.
Traditional pastoralist regions during the 19th and 20th centuries
Figure 10.5 shows how pastoralism flourished all over several regions
during the 19th and 20th centuries.
There are two classifications of pastoralism: pastoral nomads and
transhumance pastoralists. Pastoral nomads have similarities with the way
of life of foragers because of temporary settlements. However, the only
difference is that early foragers do not focus on tending animals. Therefore,
their search for food and water is for their own personal consumption. On
the other hand, pastoral nomads transfer from one place to another in search
of food and resources that are not just limited for their consumption alone
but also for the consumption of their animals. Most destinations of pastoral
nomads are highly dependent on the needs of their animals.
O'Neil (2011) described transhumance pastoralists as “following a
cyclical pattern of migrations that usually take them to cool highland valleys
in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in the winter. This is seasonal
migration between the same two locations in which they have regular
encampments or stable villages often with permanent houses.”
Transhumance pastoralists are not dependent on their animals for food.
They are into planting and vegetation, which serves as their food. These
pastoralists are also into trading their animals in exchange for grain or food
from the market.
Presently, pastoralism is still being practiced by some modern societies
and countries. Even though they may be from different regions of the world,
they still share similar qualities that make them a real breed of early
pastoralist societies.
Fig. 10.6.
Mongolian horse pastoral nomads and their camp
Source:
http://anthro.palomar.edu/subsistence/images/Central_Asian_pastoralists.jpg
Horticulture
Horticulture is a combination of small-scale farming and domesticating
animals for the purpose of food and prestige. Unlike foraging, this
subsistence pattern allows for the accumulation of food products because
horticultural societies participate in small surplus or selling in exchange of
the goods they cannot produce.
One of the primary characteristics of horticultural societies is their
shifting planting process that entails movement from one cultivated land to
another. Swidden farming is one key example of this pattern, as swiddeners
prepare and plant in one land area for a period of time and move to another
area after the produce is harvested from the first area. In the Philippines, this
takes the form of kaingin, a form of slash-and-burn planting method.
Fig. 10.7.
Horticultural regions in the 20th century
Horticultural societies follow a certain pattern that can shift rapidly,
depending on their situations and conditions. It also has several economic
advantages because of its flexibility and ability to adjust and resolve
circumstances. For instance, when farming lands are depleted of soil,
horticulturists move to another available field using their strategies and
techniques.
Agriculture
Most large-scale societies are dependent on agriculture as their primary
mode of economic subsistence. As early as 10 000 years ago, farming
methods and domestication of animals were developed intensively to meet
the needs of the growing population. Improved water management systems
paved the way for the spread of agriculture among different societies. The
number of large animals for plowing rapidly increased for better soil and
agricultural production. This has been the reason that farming is one of the
major sources of living and income in early societies. Most families are
farmers who work together.
Fig. 10.8.
Agricultural societies turn sloped regions into farming areas by creating
terraces like this one in Peru
Source:
http://solpurpose.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Valle-Sagrada-Peru.jpg
During ancient times, agriculture was highly practiced in the ancient
civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and eastern Syria),
India, Pakistan, North China, Mesoamerica, and Western South America
(Ferraro and Andreatta, 2010). As farming continued to flourish to the
different regions of the world, agricultural system changed constantly,
especially when agricultural technologies and inventions were discovered
and introduced to different societies.
Fig. 10.9.
Ancient intensive agriculture-based civilizations
Societies viewed farming and agriculture as a permanent and sustainable
subsistence pattern for survival. As a result, permanent settlements in
various areas increased and more buildings and structures were constructed.
Market selling and trading also started, which brought about an increase in
population over time. Agriculture resulted in the division of social classes,
wherein the farmers who were the working class decreased their power over
their goods due to the coming of the leaders or the upper classes who
controlled agricultural services and production.
Extend Your Knowledge
For a more comprehensive discussion of the rise of agriculture, read
this article from the Genographic Project of National Geographic:
https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What is the significance of nomadism to foraging societies?
2. How are pastoral nomads similar to foragers?
3. What are the advantages of a horticultural subsistence?
Beyond Walls 10.2
Read and Answer
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/mar/31/climatechange-food-supply-un
The Guardian recently reported the UN findings on the impact of
climate change to food supply. This link leads to an article titled
“Climate change ‘already affecting food supply’ – UN.” After reading
the article, answer the following questions:
1. How does climate change affect food supplies and distribution
across the world?
2. What are the pieces of evidence that support this claim?
3. What other social issues were projected to occur in relation to
climate change and food security?
Essential Learning
The variation in economic systems in different human societies is
primarily due to the type of environment that frames their experiences
and determines the types of resources available for them. Technology also
plays a vital role in determining the type of economic systems that will be
used by a society. The formation of varying economic systems serves as
proof to the adaptive function of this cultural element.
Module
11
Non-state Institutions
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Identify the functions of non-state institutions in society.
2. Evaluate the impact of interventions of non-state institutions in
the process of governance of the state. (Enrichment)
Society consists of social structures and social institutions that are
governed by norms and values. Each individual in a society has specific
roles and functions that are meant to achieve societal equilibrium. The
practice of human rights is considered a privilege of every individual in
human society, and is ideally and believed to be distributed equally. In 2008,
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights marked its 60th anniversary,
celebrating the fundamental rights and independence of human society.
By the end of World War II, various humanitarian issues and crises took
place. Hence, several initiatives were undertaken by different organizations
to address transnational and local issues that states were faced with. This
saw the establishment of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), which is mandated to be of assistance to crisis victims
(Evans, 2008). These cases of human predicament show how human rights
are being violated and deposed by institutional actors such as governments.
The creation of state and non-state institutions became more relevant in the
advent of globalization and urbanization, as these two institutions presented
the capacity to create diverse impact ranging from the social, cultural,
economic, and up to the political (University of Arizona, 2014).
How can you differentiate between state and non-state institutions?
What are their functions in human society? Weber defines state as “a human
community that claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force
within a given territory” (Shandra, 2007). This definition reflects the
inevitable existence of the government, civil service, and police in every
society. On the other hand, non-state institutions are institutions not related
to the components of the state. These institutions function with minimal
intervention from state institutions. Although states possess the official
political power in a given territory, the capacity of non-state institutions to
affect the political and economic trajectory of a society cannot be
discounted.
These non-state institutions include the following: banks and
corporations, cooperatives and trade unions, transnational advocacy groups,
and development agencies and international organizations. These non-state
institutions are equally capable of influencing policy formation and
implementation.
The succeeding sections of this module discuss the elements of non-state
institutions in relation to their background, features, and functions.
Banks and Corporations
There are several financial institutions that aid people in terms of money
and investments. In these institutions, everything is associated, related, and
linked to money and financial transactions. They cater to different types of
people and organizations. Financial institutions may be categorized into
major forms such as commercial banks, investment banks, insurance
companies, brokerages, and corporations. See Table 11.1.
Table 11.1. Kinds of Financial Institutions and Their Descriptions
Financial Institution
1. Commercial banks
Description
•
Financial deposit with security and convenience which could be
in the form of credit card, debit card, and check
•
Provide business, individual, and personal loans, enabling
commercial banks to earn interest
•
Serve as payment agents within and outside the country through
wire transfer
•
Subjected to more regulations
Financial Institution
2. Investment banks
Description
•
Financial intermediaries that perform a variety of services for
businesses and some governments
•
Issue securities to the investing public
•
Make markets, facilitate mergers, and other corporate
reorganizations
•
Act as a broker for institutional clients
•
Under the supervision of regulatory bodies such as the
Securities and Exchange Commission, FINRA, and the US
Treasury
3. Insurance companies
•
Subjected to fewer regulations
•
Aid individuals and companies in terms of risk management and
wealth preservation
•
Capable of earning profit and paying claims, through their large
number of insurances
4. Brokerages
•
Intermediaries in the transaction between buyers and sellers for
the purpose of security
5. Investment companies
•
Commission-based earnings
•
Help individuals invest funds or money with other investors to
or corporations
manage portfolios of security
•
Purchase securities indirectly through a package product such as
a mutual fund
Source:
http://www.investopedia.com/walkthrough/corporate-finance/1/financialinstitutions.aspx (accessed 29 October 2015)
Table 11.1 provides the summary points for each type of financial
institution together with its descriptions and major functions. In general,
financial institutions cater to people and firms, possibly generating a
significant impact to society. The two most well-known financial
institutions that are actively shaping the socioeconomic development of the
Philippines are the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank. They
have been providing financial aid to the Philippine government and various
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to facilitate their developmental
objectives.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the differences between insurance companies and
investment companies?
2. What are the different kinds of financial institutions?
3. How did the UNHCR become a global institution?
Cooperatives and Trade Unions
Trade unions and cooperatives have the primary role of promoting labor
welfare and good industrial relations. Trade unions and cooperatives are
organizations comprising workers and laborers with common goals,
purposes, and interests. They mostly concern employment relations,
decency, and welfare. Table 11.2 presents the major societal roles of trade
unions and cooperatives.
Table 11.2. Roles of Trade Unions and Cooperatives
Role
1. Political
Description
•
Can be powerful and influential in creating political impact
•
Can be in conflict with other parties due to large number of
members with common interests that are different from other
union's interest
2. Market
•
Reactive because of preoccupied economic aims that concern
employment salaries, wages, and inflation rates and rights
(macroeconomic and microeconomic policies)
3. Regulatory
•
Influential in determining and improving job qualities and
standards to regulate employment functions
Role
4. Democratizing
Description
•
Promote rights to economic democracy and participation to
industrial democracy
5. Service
•
Promote the welfare of members through various initiatives and
partnerships with different organizations that provide service to
them
6. Enhancement
•
Concerned
for
potential
development
and
member's
improvement
7. Welfare
•
Multifunctional institutions, conforming more to the idea of the
trade union as being part of a movement
Source:
http://www.ilocarib.org.tt/Promalco_tool/productivity-tools/manual09/m9_4.htm
Extend Your Knowledge
This link leads to an essay titled “Trade Union Growth and Decline in
Asia” published by the Cornell University ILR School. After reading the
essay, identify the factors that have affected the status of trade unions in
the Philippines.
http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1216&context=articles
Transnational Advocacy Groups
Societal issues and problems are not concentrated in a certain society or
within a specific area only. It may also be extended across borders and
countries. Most of these issues have something to do with international
policies that are not responsive to contemporary issues. Keck and Sikkink
(1998) argue that international lawmaking undergoes changes and have been
more concerned of public issues. These changes were brought about by the
rapid growth of transnational advocacy networks that constantly influence
the policy-making in a country by sponsoring advocacy campaigns
publicizing social issues.
The pressure that transnational advocacy groups (TAGs) create in state
institutions, and at times to the general public, creates a negative image.
Evans (2008) argue that “transnational networks and corporations are
considered the bad guys, whereas the nongovernment organizations are the
good guys.” This is despite the fact that NGOs are highly interrelated with
TAGs. Transnational actors could be categorized into local social
movements, foundations, media, religious organizations, scholars,
international agencies, and regional intergovernmental organizations (Keck
and Sikkinik, 1998).
What do you think are the issues being catered by TAGs? Human rights,
consumers' rights, women's rights, international peace, and environmental
issues are mostly the concerns of these groups. Transnational networks can
be very influential because of their broad scope and wide connections.
These networks have specific roles to partake that can be achieved through
effective measures, case-specific methods, and activities. The very essence
of transnational groups is the formation and development of their
advocacies and campaigns that represent certain principled causes, ideas,
values, and beliefs.
TAGs serve as international catalysts for change, aiming to achieve
international changes toward policies and practices. An example of a TAG
is Green Peace, which is popular for its members' active and alternative
engagement of the public and concerned agencies in relation to
environmental issues.
Development Agencies
Development agencies are organizations with specific aims and goals.
The common denominator among these organizations is the term
development. These agencies concentrate on the growth, progression, and
advancement of specific societal concerns, which can be infrastructure or
social institutions. Several sectors of the international community have
issues with development, as they believe that it is laden with various social
constructs that revolve around postcolonial and hegemonic arguments.
Some of the critical questions that are posed include the following:
•
Who defines development?
•
What are the characteristics of being developed?
•
Who controls the values that are associated with development?
For the purposes of this discussion, we will use the context of political
and economic development.
There are two major types of organizations that are considered as
development agencies: international organizations and NGOs. What is the
difference between the two? Do these two have similarities?
International Organizations
Coppee (2011) stated that “one of the important roles of international
organizations is to translate agreed-upon values into rights and obligations.”
The central role of international organizations is essentially to provide
support and assistance through organized framework to international
cooperation. This cooperation aims to be developed across several
institutions over time. The United Nations (UN) is a premier example for
this as it aims to
achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social,
cultural, or humanitarian character, and in improving and encouraging respect for human
rights and for fundamental freedom for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or
religion (UN Charter)
International organizations concentrate mostly on the distribution of
equitable health and social development. Also, these organizations have
diverse networks that enable them to provide and exchange support across
different borders and localize their implementations of international
policies.
The following are examples of international organizations as listed by
Coppee (2011): UN and its specialized agencies; Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD); Organization of African Unity
(OAU); Organization of American States (OAS); Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN), wherein the Philippines is a founding member;
European Union (EU, formerly the European Communities); MERCOSUR
(Southern Market or Mercado Comun del Sur); Caribbean Community
(CARICOM); European Free Trade Association (EFTA); and North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) among Canada, the United
States, and Mexico.
Big Idea
Non-state institutions complement the services provided by
the state.
Nongovernment Organizations
Mostly working in limited territories, NGOs are often characterized by
their intensive collaboration with local stakeholders to improve their
beneficiaries' conditions. Este (1992) defined NGOs as “those nonprofit,
often voluntary, organizations that carry a broad range of social
development functions with and on behalf of people. The vast majority of
these organizations exists outside of government and, thus, their programs
emanate more from the expressed needs of people rather than from
governments.”
Most NGOs aim to promote the practice of democracy among societies.
These organizations are independent, and they encourage participation from
the public. NGOs also aim to promote social change through their initiatives
and organizational methods.
Sometimes, NGOs seek sponsorship from some other institutions and
organizations to fund their projects and programs. Many NGOs have
targeted their efforts toward population groups that tend to be underserved
by governmental programs, including women, the aged, physically and
mentally disabled persons, the poor, and various social groups that have
been marginalized by virtue of race, religion, ethnicity, caste, and social
class.
The World Bank (1989) provides a classic categorization of NGOs. See
Table 11.3.
Table 11.3. Categories of NGOs and Their Descriptions
Category
Description
1. Community
•
associations
Represent voices of people from different communities, and act
as bridge between members of the communities and government
2. Policy advocacy groups
•
Have local, national, and international levels of participation;
serve as catalysts for collective action among poor persons in
societies unaccustomed to such behavior
3. Service
provider
•
intermediaries
Have national and international levels of participation; serve
remote areas and communities especially those who fail to
receive government programs; seek fund through income
generating activities which are mostly nonprofit
4. Contractors
•
Involved in sponsored projects as consultants to government
agencies or to international financial institutions that gain no
profit at all
5. Cooperatives
•
Protect and provide economic benefits to the needy; are formed
when a task cannot be done on the individual level, such as
obtaining credit (Cernea,1988:13–4 in Estes, 1992).
Beyond Walls 11.1
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
You are development manager of a rural health NGO. This NGO is
struggling to involve the community to take part in its program for
maternal health. Your goal is to make the community members aware of
your organization's program for pregnant women, which includes free
checkup, distribution of prenatal vitamins, and postnatal care. Your task
is to create an information and education campaign material for the
female community members on the programs of your organization. Your
output will be evaluated based on its cultural appropriateness, relevance,
and comprehensiveness.
Interrelationship of Government and Non-state Institutions
Government plays a vital role in human society because it is expected
that its effort and initiatives must be aligned with public welfare and service.
Personal interest must be the least concern of the bureaucracy to ensure
good will and avoid societal dysfunction. Failure to perform bureaucratic
functions will lead to different forms of conflict among societies.
How does the government relate to non-state institutions? Governments
are faced with varying demands from its constituents. When governments
are unable to address such demands and their related issues, non-state
institutions create responses to facilitate government intervention through
policy campaigns or even actual delivery of demanded services and
products. Presently, non-state institutions have been empowered, allowing
them to have greater and wider participation in different societies. This
paved the way to a broader relationship with government institutions
(Stratton, 2008).
The ideal relationship of government and non-state institutions is one
that is on equal footing in addressing social issues. Given the roles that these
institutions take, will these two institutions be really equal? Government
rules society according to existing norms and values in the form of laws,
rights, and policies. This reflects how powerful a government institution can
be. Accordingly, if non-state institutions interfere with the governing body,
two possible things can happen. First, integration among these two
institutions may take place to achieve precise solution towards development.
Second, conflict and tension may also arise because one could exceed the
other in terms of societal control and influences (Penninx, 2013).
Big Idea
A multi-stakeholder approach to development allows for an
equitable approach to progress.
Economic Alliance
In a continuously globalizing world, interdependence among states in
procuring commodities and services is inevitable. The lack of supply in one
country can be addressed by another country that has a surplus of which. As
raw materials become scarcer and more difficult to procure, economic
alliance presents itself as one of the solutions. This aims to promote
economic improvement and, at the same time, resolve issues concerning
closed economies.
The main objective of economic alliance is to produce economic
policies that lead to economic diversity and growth. The ASEAN Economic
Community (AEC) is one of the more recent examples of economic
alliances formed by countries to promote economic stability and
sustainability in their region. In the AEC, citizens of participating countries
are expected to have easier employment access within the region. The
transfer of commodities will also be made cheaper through lowered tariff
rates to promote intensive economic linkages and free flow of goods.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. Why is economic alliance important in a globalizing world?
2. How do non-state institutions work with the government?
3. What is the ideal relationship between governments and non-state
institutions?
National Security
National security is “a state or condition where our most cherished
values and beliefs, our democratic way of life, our institutions of
governance and our unity, welfare and well-being as a nation and people are
permanently protected and continuously enhanced” (DLSU, 2011). This
definition is one of the many definitions attributed to national security.
What are the elements of national security? See Table 11.4.
Table 11.4. Elements of National Security and Their Description
Element
Description
1. Sociopolitical stability
•
Regardless of social differences, societal harmony must be
achieved and maintained through the effort of the government,
public, and other institutions.
2. Territorial integrity
•
This refers to the permanent inviolability of our national
territory and its effective control by the government and the
state.
•
Protection from illegal incursions and resource exploitation
must be maintained.
3. Economic
solidarity
•
and strength
4. Ecological balance
Economic equality must prevail considering public interest,
dignity, and labor's welfare.
•
This refers to the conservation of the environment through
initiatives and sustainable development.
5. Cultural cohesiveness
•
This refers to the common set of norms and values rooted from
cultural ethics.
6. Moral-spiritual
•
consensus
7. External peace
There should be national cooperation guided by common deeds,
goals, and objectives.
•
Society must be free from threat, violence, war, and hostility.
Source:
http://www.dlsu.edu.ph/offices/sps/rotc/pdf/ms1/threatnatlsecurity.pdf
With the growing political clout of several countries, the concept of an
all-sovereign state becomes threatened. This also poses risks on the
maintenance of national security. The maritime dispute between China and
the Philippines over the Panatag Shoal (Scarborough Shoal) and the Spratlys
has been the cause of threat to the national security of both countries.
Disaster Mitigation and Risk Reduction
One of the areas where non-state institutions are actively involved in is
disaster response. There has been an observed increase in weather
variability that has caused climate-induced disasters in human population.
This is often associated to climate change. The United Nations Office for
Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) argues that “there is no such thing as a
‘natural’ disaster, only natural hazards.”
Fig. 11.1.
Processes of a disaster
Source:
http://www.fig.net/pub/figpub/pub38/figpub38.htm
According to Figure 11.1, the main cause of disaster is the combination
of hazard and vulnerability. Hazards may be caused by natural phenomena
or by humans. Society and its environment are vulnerable to these kinds of
incidents. The preparations and planning must be led by the governing body,
and they must be followed by the society under it, making other institutions
react also to the given situation.
Disaster risk reduction and management (DRRM) is a step-by-step
process that considers several elements. Figure 11.2 shows the elements,
processes, and flow of disaster risk management.
Fig. 11.2.
DRRM protocol
Source:
Adapted from
http://www.fig.net/resources/publications/figpub/pub38/figure_3.jpg
Key Elements of Disaster Risk Management
The first step in disaster risk management is the identification or
assessment of risks. It involves monitoring, identifying risk, and analyzing
vulnerability. Followed by the prevention and mitigation process,
management will set up plans and actions toward these risks and disasters.
Then, warning and notice are provided to the public, which includes
evacuation and emergency planning. Last, the adaptation, or recovery, stage
takes place, wherein rehabilitation, reconstruction, and rescue services
happen.
Ideally, the first responders to a disaster are the institutions related to the
government. However, in situations where logistical support is lacking, nonstate institutions often become the first responders in areas devastated by
disasters. In the aftermath of Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan), Leyte and other
neighboring provinces received support from both state and non-state
institutions.
Reflect Upon
Sometimes, governments and non-state institutions are caught in a
conflict due to disagreements on policies relating to social issues. In a
500-word essay, evaluate the interaction between the Philippine
government and international organizations with regard to the issue of the
drug eradication program.
Social Development
Social development is one of the goals of every society. Any society that
undergoes social development is expected to move upward or attain
progress. Social development entails productivity, better efficiency,
accomplishment, and innovations (Cleveland and Jacobs, 1999).
The pursuit of public health equity, or equal access to health systems, is
one of the primary foci of international organizations such as the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and World Health Organization.
Human rights and social justice is the focus of organizations such as
Amnesty International, Save the Children, and International Justice Mission.
All of these examples highlight the clamor for social development.
On one hand, the government continues to search for different ways to
achieve social development. On the other hand, non-state institutions also
participate in promoting social development through their various initiatives
and advocacies relating to social welfare. Social development is a very long
process that requires proper strategic planning (long term) and operational
planning (short term). This is not possible without the union of public,
government, and other institutions including non-state institutions that
perform a great role not only in social development but also in terms of
social empowerment.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What does social development entail?
2. How do non-state institutions promote social development?
3. What are the elements of disaster risk management?
Essential Learning
The development of humans and the conditions of their society are
goals that are achievable through collaborative engagement among the
community, the government, and non-state institutions. The success of
development programs is highly reliant on the efficiency of the
collaboration of the stakeholders.
Module
12
Social and Political Stratification
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Examine stratification from the functionalist and conflict
perspectives.
2. Identify characteristics of the systems of stratification.
3. Suggest ways to address global inequalities.
4. Report on the status of persons with disability on their
integration to society. (Enrichment)
5. Advocate for inclusive citizenship.
6. Promote protection of human dignity, rights, and the common
good.
Would you consider yourself or your family rich, poor, or average?
Often times, when you ask a Filipino if he or she is rich, you will receive
responses such as “medyo mayaman,” “may kaya,” and “ayos lang.” These
descriptions do not directly translate to Western concepts of being poor,
middle class, or rich. These categories are already culturally laden, such that
a person who is may kaya is supposedly richer than the person who is medyo
mayaman. The differences in the statuses ascribed to individuals are
dependent on socially accepted criteria. These criteria enable the creation of
systemic hierarchies that position individuals in either powerful or
marginalized capacities. This unequal access to values and resources
promotes social and political stratifications that perpetuate the problem of
inequality.
Reflect Upon
Create a table presenting terms that you use to describe the
socioeconomic status of people. This may be similar to the terms
described above such as medyo mayaman and may kaya. The table should
be divided into three parts: (1) term, (2) meaning, and (3) characteristics
of people in this category
Social stratification implies the division or classification of members of
society into different strata (singular: stratum), promoting the development
of hierarchy among social groups. Each group is characterized by a shared
common identity and lifestyle that are brought about by the status ascribed
to its members. Hence, the may kaya (middle class) Filipinos practice a
different set of values and beliefs from those who belong to the walangwala (subsistence poor). The disparity in practices and beliefs between
social groups from different ranks of society intensifies in-group and outgroup dynamics.
The creation of hierarchies in human groups is associated with the
development of complex economic systems that required the specialization
of labor. Technologically simple societies that are based on foraging
minimally practice social stratification, if not at all. At the advent of
agricultural revolution, human groups started creating social categories that
can support the new economic system. The production of surplus resources
created economic elites who were later accorded political ascendancy as
they controlled the forces of production.
Social Desirables
In a society where social stratification is present, social desirables are
inevitable. Social desirables refer to factors that are somewhat accepted or
desired in a certain society. Social desirables may be associated with social
status, popularity, acceptance, or approval. These factors can be considered
as qualities that make individuals appear as socially desirable in the
community. There are three most desired qualities in every society: wealth,
power, and prestige.
Wealth
Wealth pertains to the accumulated economic capital of an individual or
group. The extent of the amassed wealth of an individual or group usually
determines its capacity for influence in decision-making in society. Marxist
perspective argues that the differentiation in wealth creates social,
economic, and political inequality, which ultimately promotes social
suffering among the disadvantaged.
Power
Dahl (Curtis, 2001) defined power as the capacity of an individual to
influence another person to perform an act that he or she would not
otherwise do. This is associated with wealth, as economic capital permits
selected members of society to determine the norms that are often more
beneficial for the elite than for the majority who are bound to follow them.
Power involves benefits and privileges. The power to determine the course
of policies and economy can provide an individual with distinct advantage
as compared with those who cannot wield influence on others.
Prestige
The last social desirable that serves as the result of the two previous
elements is prestige. Wealth combined with power leads to prestige.
Sociologists define the term prestige as a level of honor in human society
attached to different groups with reference to the group's occupation. The
measurement of occupational prestige depends on social standing and
desirability. The level of prestige depends on the job professionalism of
individuals in relation to training rather than their job income (Pearson:
Sociology, 2005). For instance, a wealthy and powerful individual is
expected to have a stable and high form of occupation to maintain societal
rank and position. Hence, occupational prestige, together with wealth and
power, has always been seen as the basis of social status and rank in human
society.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. Why are social desirables inevitable in stratified societies?
2. How does social stratification result in social inequality?
3. Why do human societies create social stratification?
Social Mobility System
Social mobility is the shift in social status or rank of an individual within
the frame of a social structure. Individuals who gain position in a certain
social class may progress to a higher status. The forms, nature, and
directions of social mobility are highly dependent on the social stratification
of every society, which may change from time to time. For instance, a
country or community where agriculture is predominant indicates a lower
social mobility as compared with other countries (Landes, 2013).
Social mobility may be vertical and horizontal. Vertical mobility
involves the upward and downward mobility, which means a progression of
social status related to class, power, and prestige. It can be from higher to
lower and vice versa.
Fig. 12.1.
Vertical mobility
On the other hand, horizontal mobility refers to the movement from one
status to another within the same social category. It may be a transfer of
position to another area but with no other changes in the position. For
instance, a government employee at a certain level may transfer to another
government organization in the same level of position.
Aside from the above mentioned types that affect status, class, and
position, social mobility may also affect generations resulting in two types:
intergenerational and intragenerational. The former occurs when changes
take place from one generation to another, whereas the latter illustrates
changes within the same generation.
Social stratification occurs in a variety of social structures. There are
four types of stratification systems: class, caste, estate, and slavery.
Class
Class system denotes the classification of an individual or group of
persons having explicit societal status based on acquired characteristics. In
17th century Europe, the main qualification to be a member of a certain
hierarchical class depends mostly on three things: wealth, economic
occupation, and power. Nonetheless, this qualification changes over time,
reliant on the existing societies especially those societies that consider legal
differentiation as the basis of social classes (Social Stratification, 2014).
Class may also be characterized in different ways, but the term status is
always associated with it. Status in a class system is not ascribed, but it is
rather achieved in many different ways. Class and status differ according to
their accustomed modes of behavior, which include lifestyle, recreation, and
culture. The standard of living, preference, taste, and mode of dress is
reflected on lifestyle and behavior.
Vertical social mobility is seen as a movement in the class system
because it represents an open system, wherein an economic area is the main
concern rather than economic groups or divisions. It involves subjective
criteria such as social class consciousness, solidarity, and identification,
whereas wealth, property, income, occupation, and education serve as the
objective criteria (Landes, 2013). Class system is merely class conscious
and characterized by relations of each individual member toward other
members within their classes and other classes (Sociology Guide, 2014).
The traditional perspective presents class as a three-fold classification
consisting of the following: upper class, middle class, and lower class. The
upper class is composed of the elite group (e.g., institutional leaders,
capitalists). The middle class consists of the scientific and technical
individuals of the society (e.g., engineers, accountants, lawyers). The lower
class comprises the working class (e.g., laborers) and the poor.
Pitrim Sorokin, a 20th century sociologist, identified three major types
of social class stratification: economic, political, and occupational (Sorokin,
1947). In more industrialized societies, these categories are expanded to
include subcategories. For example, middle class can be divided into upper
and lower categories.
Caste
The caste system is related to the concept of Hindu practice, tradition,
and culture, which is rooted in divine sanction and custom. The term caste
is derived from the Spaniards meaning “breed.” Thus, caste also means
“race” in society. The Sanskrit word for caste is varna meaning “color.”
Also, Hindu society is composed of four types of varna or caste known as
brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, and shudra. The Hindu caste system is a closed
system, as it does not allow for social mobility. An individual who is born a
Shudra (worker) came from parents who are of the same caste.
Fig. 12.2.
Hindu caste system
As seen in Figure 12.2, each caste system has specific duties and
responsibilities. The brahmins are placed in the highest position next to the
gods, and they include the priests and academics. Moreover, brahmins enjoy
special privileges such as conducting temple worships and prayers, making
them superior and sacred. Kshatriyas are composed of warriors and kings
for the purpose of defense and protection management. Vaishyas include
landowners and merchants who perform agricultural production. The lowest
position in the caste system is occupied by the shudras, who are servants
and workers for the other caste system. The untouchables have no caste
system, which signifies that these groups are outcasts.
The caste system was created to ensure the continuity and preservation
of Indian culture from the earliest generation up to the present one (Social
Stratification, 2014). However, it has been one of the main reasons why
alienation, division, and discrimination are present. It is because of the
different positions in the caste system, which are linked to specific standards
and criteria, that some individuals enjoy superiority and privileges more
than others.
In the precolonial period, the Philippines had an open caste system that
divided the society according to four categories: maharlika, timawa, aliping
namamahay, and aliping saguiguilid. This was an open caste system, as it
allowed for social mobility within the lifetime of an individual.
Extend Your Knowledge
The Indian caste system has proven to be a cause of hate crimes that
target members of the lower strata or castes. This link leads to an article
about the experience of violence among the Dalits. As you read the
article, look into the types of violence committed against Dalits and the
kind of rationalization given by the perpetrators. Go to
http://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/11-major-incidents-of-violenceagainst-dalits-which-show-how-badly-we-treat-them-258944.html.
Estate System
The estate system is identical to the practice of feudalism. It has its roots
in pre-Revolution France, where individuals were ranked according to three
categories: clergy, nobility, and commoners. The final authority in this
system was the king. The estate system was based on existing legal
structures that defined members' status, rights, and duties. The broad
division of labor was also present in this system including specific
functions. Like feudalism, the estate system related to political group
participation, and possessed political powers (Sociology Guide, 2014).
Slavery
This system is the most extreme form of inequality in society. For
instance, slaves are often maltreated by their owners. In most cases, slaves
have no rights at all and, deprived of everything because it is believed that
they are created to work only for others. Ancient Greeks and Romans
allowed various forms of slavery of non-Greek or non-Roman individuals.
This system persisted in Western countries such as the United States, which
only formally abolished the practice in 1865, through an amendment in the
US Constitution but with much resistance from slave owners and their
supporters. The condition of the slaves in the United States can be seen in
this quotation from Harriet Beecher Stowe's classic work Uncle Tom's
Cabin, which sparked antislavery sentiments in the United States that
resulted in the American Civil War.
“But now what? Why, now comes my master, takes me right away from my work, and my
friends, and all I like, and grinds me down into the very dirt! And why? Because, he says, I
forgot who I was; he says, to teach me that I am only a nigger! After all, and last of all, he
comes between me and my wife, and says I shall give her up, and live with another woman.
And all this your laws give him power to do, in spite of God or man. Mr. Wilson, look at it!
There isn't one of all these things, that have broken the hearts of my mother and my sister,
and my wife and myself, but your laws allow, and give every man power to do, in Kentucky,
and none can say to him nay! Do you call these the laws of my country? Sir, I haven't any
country, anymore than I have any father. But I'm going to have one. I don't want anything of
your country, except to be let alone,—to go peaceably out of it; and when I get to Canada,
where the laws will own me and protect me, that shall be my country, and its laws I will
obey. But if any man tries to stop me, let him take care, for I am desperate. I'll fight for my
liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them, it is
right for me!”
—George Harris to Mr. Wilson
Big Idea
Social inequality is the product of the varying access of
individuals to social desirables.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How is vertical mobility different from horizontal mobility?
2. What social contexts result in social stratification?
3. What type of social stratification system did the pre-Hispanic
Filipinos have?
Social Inequality
Social inequality is one of the dimensions of stratification that concerns
the gap between the rich and the poor (Neckerman and Torche, 2007). In the
United States, social inequality is more rampant than in other countries
because of their higher economic capacities and capabilities. Social
inequality is visible in many other social institutions affecting other social
aspects such as gender, capital (social, political, and symbolic), ethnic
minorities and other minorities (e.g., persons with disabilities), and global
inequality.
Access to Social, Political, and Symbolic Capital
According to Pierre Bordieu, capital “is a force inscribed in the
objectivity of things so that everything is not equally possible and
impossible.” The existing social world is innate and depends on the
structures of capital. There are three fundamental types of capital:
economic, symbolic, and cultural capital. How do you differentiate one from
the other? See Table 12.1.
Table 12.1. Forms of Capital
Form
Economic (Marx)
Resources
Assets
Mechanism
Class
Characterization
•
Convertible
to
money
•
Institutionalized
in the form of
property rights
Form
Resources
Symbolic/Social
Commands, access,
(organizational
favors
Mechanism
Power, hierarchy
Characterization
•
Convertible
to
economic capital
control, social
•
networks) (Weber)
Institutionalized
in the form of
educational
qualifications
Cultural/Knowledge
Distinction, authority
Status, recognition
•
(Bourdieu)
Social obligations
and connections
•
Convertible
to
certain conditions
•
Institutionalized
in the form of title
and nobility
These forms of capital are present in every human society, affecting
social stratification and inequality. The access to these forms of capital is
limited on one's social status. People and groups in higher positions enjoy
more and unlimited resources because of their wealth and power. Most of
these people are popular and noble, allowing them to gain power in society
in the form of having positions in politics or government.
In general, these forms of capital serve as the privileges of every
individual in human society, which is highly dependent on their rank and
position. Thus, this is an evident form of social inequality because not
everyone has access to this capital.
Ethnic Minorities and Persons with Disabilities
Are you familiar with the concept of social exclusion? This term defines
the inequality between and among ethnic minorities and other minorities.
Social exclusion is the concept of alienating or dividing individuals or a
group in a certain society. Race and ethnicity have also been the basis of
social division in the whole world. Racial and ethnic differences entail
widespread conflict which can be economic, political, social, and cultural.
Racial identity is the main concern of ethnic inequalities (Nazroo, 2013).
For instance, African Americans often suffer from racial discrimination,
making them feel alienated from other societies. Again, this is a visible
example of social inequality.
Other minorities also experience inequalities and social discrimination
due to specific differences they possess as compared with other individuals
and groups. Minorities such as persons with disabilities (PWDs) suffer from
social exclusion and discrimination because of their disabilities. From social
policies to infrastructure, the exclusion of PWDs can be observed. For
example, the lack of sufficient PWD-friendly establishments promotes
hardship and further marginalization of PWDs. Consequently, opportunities
in life are limited for them because of the prejudices of people.
Beyond Walls 12.1
Go Online
Read these news articles regarding the developments of Republic
Act 10754 or “An Act Expanding the Benefits and Privileges of Persons
with Disability (PWDs).”
http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2016/0330_recto2.asp
http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/849957/implementing-rules-ofpwd-law-signed
After reading the articles, create a short blog entry presenting the
benefits given to PWDs and their caregivers. Make sure to use accurate
sources and to cite them in your blog entry.
Gender Inequality
Gender
Another widespread form of inequality is gender inequality. This has
been a major issue and problem around the world. Gender has always been a
sensitive topic in every argumentation. Violence against women and
children rapidly increase every day. Gender discrimination among LGBTQI
continues even if several organizations have already developed advocacies
and means to eliminate discrimination in every society and community.
•
Dowry deaths are responsible for the murders of thousands of
women every year, especially in South Asia.
•
Honor killings continue to take place in Pakistan, Turkey, Jordan,
Syria, Egypt, Lebanon, Iran, Yemen, Morocco, and other
Mediterranean and Gulf countries.
•
Physical and sexual abuse of girls is a serious concern across all
regions.
•
Child marriage continues to put young girls at great risk for tooearly pregnancy and other sexual and reproductive health issues.
•
Female genital cutting or mutilation (FGC/M) causes serious injury
to millions of young women every year.
•
The rate of femicide (murder of women and girls) has significantly
escalated over the last few years.
Source:
http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/publications/publications-a-z/1556-the-factsgender-inequality-and-violence-against-women-and-girls-around-the-world
The cases above show how rampant gender inequality is. Gender
inequalities will only be avoided if gender issues would be settled. But then
again, settling gender issues may be daunting because of the existing norms
and values of the society. Furthermore, several sociologists made various
studies to satisfy inquiries about gender, issues, discrimination, and
inequalities, which also lead to further approach and studies up to the
present time.
Beyond Walls 11.1
Read and Answer
Go
to
http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report2016/gender-gaps-and-income/ to read a report on the global gender gap
with specific focus on income from the World Economic Forum. After
reading the report, answer the following questions:
1. What factors contribute to the discussed results?
2. How is gender parity related to gross national income?
3. What is the status of the Philippines in this report?
Inequality
One of the most debated issues in the world is that of global inequality.
This type of inequality refers to the unequal distribution of scarce resources
and values across territories. The divide between resource-rich territories
and those that face the challenge of ensuring basic human needs and care
have been conceptualized in dichotomized terms such as developing versus
developed countries, first world versus third world, and, more recently,
Global South versus Global North. In all these dichotomies, the prevalent
theme is the unequal access to world resources among countries.
Although the Philippines and Singapore are part of Southeast Asia, they
are categorized under opposing economic development context. Singapore
belongs to the Global North, which comprises powerful countries such as
the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, and China. The Philippines
belong in the Global South which comprises of economically and politically
struggling countries. The lived experiences of people living in the Global
North are significantly different from those of the Global South, even if they
belong in the same social class. This is to say that the poverty that is lived
by a person in the Global South is significantly more challenging than that
of his or her Global North counterpart (Neckerman and Torche, 2007).
These global inequalities can also be observed in its micro perspective.
In fact, economic inequality is commonly observed in both economic poles.
The divide between social classes is especially observed in industrialized
and urbanized societies. Geographic mapping often shows the clustering of
the rich in one area that exclude the poor.
Various complex economic structures are created that perpetuate this
system of inequality. In the United States, the rise of food and recreational
deserts is being observed by social scientists. These deserts refer to the lack
of food sources such as grocery stores and the lack of recreational centers
such as parks or theaters in poor communities. This isolation promotes a
string of social problems such as the increase in obesity among people
living in food deserts. This increase in obesity is due to the consumption of
unhealthy food items, which are chiefly available in convenience stores.
Communities experiencing recreational deserts have been observed to have
a rise of drug dependency and practice of unsafe sexual behaviors. These
food-and-recreation-deprived communities are situated in societies where
other communities are experiencing the convenience of multiple markets
and grocery stores, which are secure places where various forms of
recreational facilities are available (Barkan, 2013).
Theories on Inequality
For the past years, inequality has been analyzed by sociologists because
it is present in every human society. This section provides various
perspectives of sociologists regarding social stratification and inequality.
Conflict Theory
Karl Marx's idea of conflict theory is highly based on the modern
society which is divided into two classes: the proletariat and the
bourgeoisie. Proletariats are the workers or the working class. On the other
hand, the bourgeoisie are the landlords and owners of production (Curtis,
1976).
For Marx, the proletariat or workers are being exploited by the
bourgeoisie. The proletariats were given food, shelter, and clothing by the
owners. However, exploitation occurs without the workers noticing it due to
their false consciousness and mistaken beliefs that the bourgeoisie are the
ones working for them. Marx predicted that a revolution would happen
between the proletariat and bourgeoisie as the rich became richer. This
revolution would involve true class consciousness together with shared
identity that is deeply rooted from exploitation. Marx believed that a
communist society is better than a capitalist society, wherein people would
be treated equally, and no one controlled wealth. However, Marx's
hypothesis failed and never came into the limelight. As modern societies
developed, the working class became more educated, allowing them to
acquire skilled and better jobs. Instead of exploitation, labor laws and the
protection of working class were developed, letting the members of the
working class earn salaries for their financial well-being.
Max Weber looks into how Marx viewed social stratification. For
Weber, there are other factors and elements to consider in determining one's
social class including power, wealth, and prestige. As people acquire more
wealth, prestige, or popularity, they also acquire more power.
Functionalism
Summary of Davis and Moore's Principles of Stratification
The main function of stratification is “placing and motivating
individuals in the social structure.”
1. Each society must (a) place individuals in social positions and (b)
motivate them to work.
2. Some positions are more functionally important than others and/or
require more training or talent than others.
3. Societies place appropriate (i.e., skilled and trained) people in these
positions and motivate them to work by connecting these positions to
better rewards.
4. Thus, the resulting stratification system is functional for society.
Source:
http://www.public.iastate.edu/∼soc.401/summary2(jan27).pdf
According to Davis and Moore, each member of society has specific
roles and responsibilities to take and accomplish. Each role has levels of
difficulty, and a task with higher level of difficulty entails more wealth,
power, and money. Davis and Moore also believe that the unequal
distribution of work among people enables them to exert more effort toward
the accomplishment of societal rewards. On the contrary, Tatum argues that
gender and family income is more likely a determinant of social
stratification. Men have a higher place in social stratification because
paternalistic culture has been implanted to the human mind. A wealthier
family has higher capacity of accomplishing their roles because of its higher
income.
Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common Good
Although social groupings and stratification function in promoting
social order and organization, the impact that they often have in human
groups is unsettling due to the issues that they create pertaining to the
achievement of human dignity and rights. The right of individuals to quality
education is often tampered by political arguments contesting that it should
be reserved to those who can afford it. The pervading issue in the Philippine
educational system that promotes unequal learning opportunities between
private and public schools is one of the negative impacts of inequality.
The structural and institutional sources of inequality promote social
dynamics that perpetuates the oppression of the marginalized groups. A
child who grew malnourished due to his or her parents' inability to secure
nutritious food for him or her will have fewer chances of performing well in
school. This child may drop out of school even before he or she finishes
elementary education. This would disqualify him or her from securing highpaying jobs. In the event that he or she decides to form a family, there is a
high probability that his or her children will experience the same process.
The unequal access to resources has the capacity of making several
sectors of society vulnerable to disease and criminality, as people use their
bodies and other mechanisms to secure basic needs such as food, clean
water, education, and shelter. This brings us to the topic of human dignity,
which is continuously threatened by the lack of basic sources of comfort and
need. As an individual fails to access his or her basic needs from his or her
community through noncoercive or nondestructive processes, he or she
becomes entangled in activities that may be illegal and/or illegitimate to
ensure his or her survival.
The pursuit of the common good is a primary challenge among societies
with diverse population. As each sector clamors for its perceived rights, the
scarcity of available resources poses a continuous threat to the attainment of
common good. In developing societies, the need for inclusive growth has
been brought in stakeholder consultations. Inclusive growth implies the
inclusion of all members of the society in policies for development. This
promotes the equal chance of every member of society to participate in the
economic development in his or her area.
Big Idea
Big Idea
Equitable access to scarce values and resources promote
inclusive growth in a pluralistic society.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. Why does inequality exist in human societies?
2. What is the role of social inequality in the attainment of the
common good?
3. How does conflict theory explain the concept of social inequality?
Beyond Walls 12.3
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
You are a TV commercial producer who has been commissioned to
produce a video advertisement of a feminine product. The theme of the
TV advertisement should focus on female empowerment and gender
equality. Your advertisement should be two minutes long. To
accomplish this task, you will need to work with an advertising team
that consists of a scriptwriter, artists, director, and camera personnel.
With your treammates, come up with a 30-second advertisement. Your
advertisement will be evaluated based on audience appeal, relevance to
the theme, and technical efficiency.
Essential Learning
Humans have the tendency of being exclusive as they attempt to
strengthen the bonds of their own social groups. Such exclusivity often
leads to competition among groups. This kind of competition later on
results in social inequality, as one group gains more access to the scarce
resources in the area. Inequality produces intergenerational suffering,
which can only be remedied if the succeeding generation gains access to
these limited resources.
Module
13
Education
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Evaluate how functions of education affect the lives of people in
society.
2. Promote primary education as a human right.
An individual learns his or her society's values and beliefs through
various institutions. One of the most pervading is that of the educational
system. In sociology, education is viewed as a social institution. It gives
society the potential to reach development and success. Generally, education
means the development of the intellect. It is an act of thinking critically. It
can be classified into formal and nonformal.
Formal education is the term used when a student learns inside the
classroom. A student follows a curriculum and is being graded on his or her
performance. Your experiences in your current school are fostered by this
type of education.
Fig. 13.1.
A preparatory school in Southern India
Source:
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/wf5d7iQYR7o/VdrqC6i_6qI/AAAAAAAAAA4/s_IFbBkeTLw/s320/Formal%2B
Educaiton.jpg
As a concept, nonformal education emerged in response to the world
crisis in education identified by Philip H. Coombs in 1967, who argued that
the formal education systems have failed to address the changing dynamics
of the environment and the societies. The skills that are needed to foster
economic development are lacking due to untrained labor force that is not
able to access formal education. Nonformal education enables a student to
learn skills and knowledge through structured learning experiences. A
student learns his or her values, principles, and beliefs and undergoes
lifelong learning. Capacity-building initiatives are conducted through this
type of education.
Fig. 13.2.
Capacity-building training for women in Sri Lanka by UN Habitat
Source:
http://www.fukuoka.unhabitat.org/gallery/photo_sri_lanka/gallery02/pht09.jpg
Notions on education change through history. Together with other public
issues in the contemporary world, education mainly concerns much of the
social, economic, political, and cultural systems. A sociological appreciation
is required to fully understand this matter.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the characteristics of formal education?
2. What is the significance of nonformal education in a society?
The Functions of Education That Affect Society
As British sociologist Herbert Spencer explains, functions are important
to be performed as they make the society whole. If each function is working
well, society attains progress.
The functions of education are the following: (1) to produce productive
citizens, and (2) to develop self-actualization.
Productive Citizenry
Educational systems enable citizens to be productive members of
society, as they are equipped with knowledge and skills that could
contribute to the development of their society's systems and institutions.
This highlights the importance of formal and nonformal education in the
development of oneself and the society. Consequentially, it is crucial for
educational systems to adapt to the changing demands of the environment to
efficiently capacitate individuals.
For instance, the Philippines recently adapted the K to 12 curriculum,
which provides sufficient time for students to learn and develop knowledge
and skills that are demanded by the global community. The K to 12 program
covers kindergarten and 12 years of basic education, which includes primary
education, junior high school, and senior high school. It is the aim of the
curriculum to produce high school graduates who are employable to the
skill-based sectors. Recently, some universities in the country also
underwent changes, in which they shifted their academic year to pattern it to
its Southeast Asian neighbors. This move facilitates economic integration
programs that will allow labor exchanges among participating countries.
Being a productive citizen requires critical thinking. One must have the
ability to understand his or her duties and be able to respond to them by
making decisions. Through education, individuals are introduced to
concepts concerning democracy, power, inequality, and the like. This
promotes greater awareness in his or her society. It encourages vigilance and
participation. Educational attainment does not only contribute to the
individual's success but also to the betterment of his or her environment.
Beyond Walls 13.1
Read and Answer
Go to http://www.rappler.com/nation/40398-als-graduates-collegeeducation to read an article that looks into the realities of the Alternative
Learning System (ALS) in the Philippines and the employability of its
graduates. After reading this article, answer the following questions:
1. What is ALS?
2. How do ALS graduates make their experience meaningful?
3. What factors affect the employability of ALS graduates?
Self-actualization
Education develops one's sense of self. As a huge part of the discovery
process of oneself, education encourages having the vision to become selfactualized. Moreover, it enables one to see your strengths and maintain
them. It enables one to determine weaknesses and adjust to them. This helps
one reach full potential and establish oneself as a whole.
According to Abraham Maslow, self-actualization is the highest form of
human need. It was defined as “to become more and more what one is, to
become everything that one is capable of becoming.”
Fig. 13.3.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Through education, humans are empowered to experience and learn
their true capacities that lead to self-actualization. Humans also tend to find
boundless enthusiasm in learning outside the classroom, which is basically
through experience. With this, it becomes easier for them to socialize, to
identify a career path, to create self-identity, and the like. They will tend to
have the ability to analyze, evaluate, and decide on their own.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How does education contribute to the formation and shaping of a
person's identity?
2. What are the characteristics of a productive citizen?
Primary Education as a Human Right
Primary education is essential to the early stages of human life. Humans
need education to enable them to adapt to the dictates of their society.
UNESCO declares that
Education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other human
rights. It promotes individual freedom and empowerment and yields important development
benefits. Yet millions of children and adults remain deprived of educational opportunities,
many as a result of poverty.
Normative instruments of the United Nations and UNESCO lay down international legal
obligations for the right to education. These instruments promote and develop the right of
every person to enjoy access to education of good quality, without discrimination or
exclusion. These instruments bear witness to the great importance that Member States and
the international community attach to normative action for realizing the right to education. It
is for governments to fulfill their obligations both legal and political in regard to providing
education for all of good quality and to implement and monitor more effectively education
strategies.
Education is a powerful tool by which economically and socially marginalized adults and
children can lift themselves out of poverty and participate fully as citizens.
Although the UN is such a powerful global actor that can mandate its
members to follow its structure, education deprivation still persists in most
societies. This exclusion is socially constructed in unequal settings.
Formal education suggests studying in a school or university where
everything is systematic. A teacher or professor explains, while a student
listens and understands. For that, the student pays the teacher. The last
relates primarily to the struggles between social classes.
The qualities of education experienced by students are noticeably
differentiated. The rift in the quality of education received by students from
private schools and those from public schools have been observed in both
developed and developing countries. Formal education, in particular, tries to
keep pace with the changes in the economy, as can be observed in the
constant tuition fee increases in institutions of higher learning.
In the Philippines, public schools lack manpower, particularly teachers.
This depreciates the capacity of the students to learn.
Fig. 13.4.
Situation in a public school in the Philippines
This issue on education taps the economic aspect of the society, as
classism stands as a barrier to the social development of humans. This also
digs on the impact of social inequality, as a systematic oppression lies
especially on the lower class. They experience discrepancies in educational
opportunities due to financial problems.
Big Idea
Education is a powerful element to enable culture change.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. Why does education remain inaccessible to some individuals?
2. How is poverty alleviation affected by a target beneficiary's level of
literacy?
Beyond Walls 13.2
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
You are an ALS teacher in a remote barrio in your province.
Because mathematics is one of the subjects that your students will take
up when they reach college, your goal is to teach your students how to
solve mathematical problems involving fractions. You have to come up
with a lesson plan that would let you successfully teach concepts on
fractions (e.g., converting fractions to decimals, converting fractions to
percent, changing mixed numbers to improper fractions, operations on
fractions).
You need to remember that your students have not been exposed to
this type of mathematical processes and that they have limited math
knowledge and skills. Your lesson plan should have culturally relevant
activities and processes to let the students relate to your lesson. Your
supervisor will evaluate your lesson plan based on accuracy of content,
cultural relevance of processes, and diversity of activities. You can work
with a partner for this activity.
Extend Your Knowledge
Go to http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2015/04/17/k-12-unresolvedissues.html to read an article discussing the unresolved issues related to
the implementation of the K-12 program of the government. As you read
the article, identify the key issues and the factors that affected the
implementation of the new education program of the country.
Essential Learning
Education is a social equalizer due to its capacity to empower
marginalized individuals who had limited access to the social values and
resources in the community due to their lack of socially desired
qualifications. As the needs of a society change, educational systems are
bound to change too. In instances when an educational system remains
static amidst environmental changes, it loses its value as a social
equalizer; instead, it becomes a limiting context to the population.
Module
14
Religion and Belief Systems
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Conduct participant observation (e.g., attend, describe, and
reflect on a religious practice and ritual of a different group;
observe election practices).
2. Differentiate between the types of religious practitioners.
3. Discuss the functions of religion in a society and for an
individual. (Enrichment)
4. Identify the various forms of religious activities.
Who really determines your religion? When does an individual obtain a
certain religion? Do you really have a choice when it comes to choosing
your religion? These are a few questions that you may ask whenever the
word religion comes into the picture. Anthropologists define religion as “a
set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices, pertaining to supernatural beings and
forces. Such beliefs may vary within a culture as well as among societies,
and they may change over time” (Ember, Ember, and Peregrine, 2010).
Nevertheless, there remain several issues in defining religion that are rooted
in a dichotomous perspective on it held by most societies.
First, there is the issue on how to delineate between the religious and
nonreligious phenomena. The question to be answered here is this: Which
do you believe as a religious act, and which do you consider as
nonreligious? The Kikuyu of Kenya believe that vomiting is a religious
practice as it eliminates all the evil in a person's body. In most societies,
vomiting is not considered religious, as it is understood as a typical
biological event.
Another issue in defining religion is rooted in the belief in the existence
of a divide between the spiritual and natural world. Some societies such as
that of the Nyoro in Uganda believe that the two worlds are not separate and
that they coexist in one space. Christians, on the other hand, believe that
there is a spiritual world (i.e., heaven/hell) that is separate from the natural
world (i.e., Earth). These issues present that religions are different in terms
of perspectives and practices. However, religion can be found in all human
societies. This makes religion a cultural universal.
Fig. 14.1.
A Kikuyu shaman who facilitates the circumcision process
Source:
http://cache2.asset-cache.net/xt/148641933.jpg?
v=1&g=fs1%7C0%7CLP1%7C41%7C933&s=1
Early societies such as the Egyptians, Greeks, and Sumerians used
religious symbols and practiced ritualistic ceremonies, which made religion
one of the central parts of the development of human societies (Crossman,
2014). The earliest record on the existence of religion dates to 60 000 years
ago as evidenced by cave wall carvings in France (Ferraro and Andreatta,
2010).
Fig. 14.2.
The Sorcerer of Les Gabillou in Dordogne, France
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic#/media/File:Gabillou_Sorcier.png
One of the best examples of the wide practice of religion during ancient
periods is the religion and mythology of ancient Greece. Because religion
has been associated with rituals, artifacts, beliefs, and ceremonies, the
ancient Greeks were considered to have had a religion or varieties of
religions due to their countless religious beliefs.
Religion affects you and your way of thinking in the existing world. It
serves as a pattern for the actions you take in a day-to-day existence.
Religion is seen not only as a social belief but also as a social institution that
continues to develop over time.
Thus, several social scientists, specifically sociologists, have been
studying religion. Sociologists study religion while considering diverse
societal factors such as gender, age, race, and education, which also tap
other social institutions and the concept of social change.
Functions of Religion
There are several functions of religion that can be best explained
through various theoretical orientations. Sociological perspectives aim to
look into the roles, issues, problems, and purposes that religion may serve to
people and society (Emerson, Monahan, and Mirola, 2011 in Barkan, 2012).
In this part, you are able to gain a deeper sense of understanding with the
different functions of religion by focusing on its three major functions
guided by three major sociological theories: functionalism, conflict theory,
and symbolic interactionism.
Table 14.1. Major Sociological Theories and Their Major Assumptions
Concerning Religion
Theoretical Perspective
Functionalism
Major Assumptions
Religion serves several functions for society. These include (a)
giving meaning and purpose to life, (b) reinforcing social unity and
stability, (c) serving as an agent of social control of behavior, (d)
promoting physical and psychological well-being, and (e)
motivating people to work for positive social change.
Conflict theory
Religion reinforces and promotes social inequality and social
conflict. It helps convince the poor to accept their lot in life, and it
leads to hostility and violence motivated by religious differences.
Symbolic interactionism
This perspective focuses on the ways in which individuals interpret
their religious experiences. It emphasizes that beliefs and practices
are not sacred unless people regard them as such. Once they are
regarded as sacred, they take on special significance and give
meaning to people's lives.
Source:
Barkan, Steven. “Sociological Perspectives on Religion.” In Sociology:
Understanding and Chaning the Social World, comprehensive edition.
Functions of Religion
Functionalism
Emile Durkheim argues that religion serves many functions for
societies. First, religions give meaning and purpose to life. The age-old
questions of humans on their existence and the reasons for circumstances
that befall them were first addressed by religion. Second, religion reinforces
social unity and stability. Religions establish own practices, beliefs, and
ways of worship that enable people to be united in one place. This does not
only bring people physically together but also facilitates social interactions
among them sharing same norms and values in a certain religious group.
Third, religions serve as an agent of social behavior control through the
teachings they provide. These teachings motivate people to do good and be
functional members of society. Fourth, religions promote physical and
psychological well-being by being the source of other's comfort and
happiness in times of obstacles and distress. Studies show that religiosity
promotes better health and long life (Moberg, 2008). Last, religions serve as
a motivation toward social change. Religious individuals such as Martin
Luther and Mahatma Gandhi instigated social changes in their societies
(Morris, 1984).
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory understands religion in relation to inequality and conflict
as inspired by the works of Karl Marx who stated that “religion is the opiate
of the masses” (Marx, 1964). In this statement, Marx implied the use of
religion by the governing elite to pacify the discontent of the masses. He
further argued that instead of seeing poverty as the direct result of unequal
access to resources, the masses perceive it as a manifestation of the will of
the divine, which promote the belief that enduring suffering would be
rewarding in the end. These views lead Marx to see religion as cause of
continuous social inequality among different societies. Gender inequality
concern also arise from religion by representing stereotypical views about
women being subordinate to men (Klassen, 2009).
Symbolic Interactionism
Looking into the micro perspective of religion, Max Weber's symbolic
interactionism approach argues that religion is integrated with symbols and
interpretations. The world is believed to be socially constructed. For the
interactionist, the sacredness of activities and symbols depend on the
perception of the believer. Hence, the practice of wearing a veil among
Muslims can be either a religious or a nonreligious ritual as the wearer could
associate varying meanings to it depending on her belief.
Fig. 14.3.
Comparative photographs of veiled women
This approach also attempts to determine roles and interpretations of
religion in everyday life. The symbolic interactionism approach understands
religious practices, ceremonies, and festivals of every religious group or
organization as either a transformative experience or just another form of
social gathering.
Animism
Religion involves several social patterns that are incorporated with
different social structures, norms, and values. According to Kurtz (2007), all
religions contain cosmogenies—stories and beliefs on how the world was
created and how it actually started. In ancient times, smaller societies have
this belief of spirits, which are apparitions believed to be dwelling on Earth
with the human race. This is one of the earliest forms of religious pattern,
which is known as animism.
Animism may have started in the precolonial and modern societies.
However, there are several resurrections of animistic traditions that were
observed in contemporary periods. In 1990, the resurgence of new age
movements that believed in the existence of supernatural beings and entities
was observed in Western cultures. This belief can be traced back to the
animistic beliefs of indigenous settlers. These beliefs based on the spiritual
concept of the universe and that everything that can be found inside it is said
to have soul and spirit, including plants, trees, animals, and rocks. Natural
phenomena and environmental destructions are also understood as
repercussions of the interaction between humans and spirits.
The concept of animism first appeared in the writing of Sir Edward
Burnett Tylor entitled Primitive Culture (1871). Tylor supposed animism
means “spirit” and referred to a given form of religion wherein humans are
aware of every spirit that can be found in the environment. Central to Tylor's
argument are the concepts of “the doctrine of human and other souls” or
“the doctrine of spiritual beings,” which are based on the foundational
doctrine of “psychic unity” or the predisposition of humans to conceive
thoughts and concepts that are similar.
For the past 50 years, Tylor's argument affirms that all humans for all
time have the capability to understand phenomena through the observed,
known, and imagined universe. This is through the use of people's own
cultural symbols and languages. Tylor also considers spiritualism as a
modern cult that is deficient of human motivations of animism. Ideally,
animism in all aspects of the cultural system make it possible for the human
race to experience phenomena such as dreams, visions, insights, and
experiences.
In animism, spirits can be in either good or bad form. Moreover, these
spirits make interactions and influences on humans in various ways and
forms. For instance, bad spirits may cause negative energies, possessions,
demonic disturbances, and cases of insanity. Benevolent spirits, on the
contrary, may have attributes that aid humans in acquiring their needs and
addressing their issues. Native Americans try to gain favors through
festivals, ceremonies, and prayers. One of the earliest forms of American
animist ceremonies is the Lakota Sioux War Dance, which was performed
by the tribe Lakota Sioux.
Fig. 14.4.
An artist's rendition of a Lakota Sioux War Dance
Source:
http://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/images/lakota-sioux-war-dance.jpg
Polytheism
Another religious pattern that was established during ancient periods is
polytheism. Polytheism is rooted in these two words: poly, which means
“many,” and theism, which means “god.” Hence, polytheism is
characterized by the worship of many deities, which illustrate ways of life
including beliefs, practices, and traditions (Kowalcyzk, 2012). Polytheistic
deities consist of variants of the sky god, death deity, mother goddess, love
goddess, creator deity, trickster deity, life-death-rebirth deity, and culture
hero (Mastin, 2008).
David Hume in The Natural History of Religion (1755) argued that
polytheism was the earliest form of religion among several societies. The
ideas of religion are said to be rooted in the “events of life including hopes
and fears which actuate the human mind” (Launay, 2005). Consequently,
these hopes and fears concerning, for instance, a birth, a sickness, or a bad
harvest and several other aspects are different requiring for a variety of
deities who would address them. Some of the most popular polytheistic
societies include the Greeks, Romans, Indians, and Aztecs (Kendall, 2012).
Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in the world and one of the classic
examples of polytheism.
Fig. 14.5.
Image of Ganesh, one of the Hindu gods
Source:
http://www.site.co.uk/system_include_images/uploaded/indian_gods_139992
6724_thumb.jpg
Monotheism
If you are Christian or Muslim, you can consider yourself a monotheist.
Monotheism strongly believes in one god, which is accountable for all the
things happening in the world including the world's creation and existence.
It is believed that polytheism paved the way for the development of the
belief in the supreme power of one being. Scholars argue that as human
societies affiliate with a few of the gods in a pantheon of gods, they have
come to practice exclusive worship of several deities. This practice later
promoted the ascension of a singular chosen deity to supremacy. Hume
(1755) believed that the differences between polytheism and monotheism
led to the changes of the human mind, wherein rationality is more associated
with monotheism while tolerance is to polytheism.
The development of religious patterns across societies reflect the
sociopolitical dynamics experienced by its followers. It can be said that
religion acts as a mirror of one's society. Animistic societies tend to have
egalitarian practices that allow for equality of access to power and
resources. This is parallel to the status and relationship of spirits that are
worshipped in animism—all are of equal stature. Polytheistic societies often
have a set of leaders who are governed by hierarchy. Similarly, the gods in a
polytheistic religion are believed to follow a hierarchy such that there is one
chief god and many lesser counterparts. Monotheistic societies tend to have
one supreme political leader, such as a president or a king, which is
consistent with the belief that there is also one supreme deity.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How does religion intersect with political systems?
2. What conditions allow for the practice of polytheism?
3. Why is animism associated with the environment?
Institutionalized Religion
When beliefs and rituals are codified and when worship of deities is
structured, religion ceases to be just a belief in the divine, as it takes on the
characteristic of an institution. Institutionalized religion is also referred to
by sociologists as organized religion. Some of the notable characteristics of
institutionalized religion are the following:
1. Wide-scale religious clout – The number of individuals affiliated with
this religious institution is immense that it crosses political and
international borders and cuts across social status.
2. Hierarchical leadership and membership – Followers of this type of faith
system are relegated to sociopolitical posts within the system, which
provides ranking and status. This implies that access to the divine may
not be given to every member but is a privilege of a select few. The
decisions for the welfare of the religious group are also made by those
who hold power while the members are expected to follow them.
3. Codified rituals – The processes of interacting with the divine and with
fellow members are guided by written rules and regulations that have the
power of the law, such that a member's inability to comply results in the
imposition of sanctions.
The rise of institutionalized religions can be traced back to the growth of
neolithic societies. As these societies grew more complex, the systems of
worshipping the divine became more structured. The declaration of a
country's official religion is a premier example of how a religion is
institutionalized.
Separation of Church and State
In ancient societies, the church and the state are synonymous as the
leaders of the church are also the political elite. Political scientists refer to
this as theocracy or the rule of the divine. In such societies, political leaders
also assume religious leadership by virtue of the common belief that they
are directly related to the divine. The prewar Japanese society believed that
their emperor was the direct descendant of a god. Ancient Egyptians and
Sumerians regarded their pharaohs and kings as god-kings, as they believed
that they were earthly incarnations of the divine.
As states developed into more complex political units, the
interrelationship between the state and the church has been redefined to the
extent that the church is regarded as a separate entity from the state. Most
countries have mandated the separation of church and state affairs through
the inclusion of prohibiting provision in their constitutions. The 1987
Philippine Constitution is an example of this. Article III Section 6 states that
“The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.” More specifically,
it states in Article III Section 5:
No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without
discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for
the exercise of civil or political rights.
However, despite such provisions, the religious culture of the Filipinos
have oftentimes empowered the religious sectors to influence the political
affairs of the country.
Big Idea
Religion is a cultural universal that is perpetuated by an
individual's desire to make sense of his or her world.
Beyond Walls 14.1
Read and Answer
Go
to
http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21721907-statewinning-church-v-state-philippines-war-drugs to read an article that
discusses the state of conflict between the Philippine state and the
Roman Catholic Church in the country. This conflict is rooted in the
former's “war on drugs” campaign that is accused of promoting
extrajudicial killings in the country. After reading the article, answer the
following questions:
1. What is the position of the church in the war on drugs
campaign?
2. What is the context of the Philippine state's campaign against
drugs?
3. How are other religious organizations responding to the state's
campaign?
Types of Religious Practitioners
Religious practices are performed by individuals in varying capacities.
The four main types of religious practitioners are shaman, sorcerer and
witch, medium, and priest.
A shaman is also known as a community healer. It is a position that is
usually occupied by a male who has fairly high status in his community. A
shaman is also involved in other nonreligious activities in his community,
making his religious function an occasional preoccupation.
A sorcerer and a witch are poorly regarded in their societies due to the
perceived malevolence that they inflict on individuals. They have very low
social and economic status, and they are often ostracized by members of
their communities. Accordingly, a sorcerer uses “materials, objects, and
medicines to invoke supernatural malevolence,” whereas a witch can
accomplish “malevolence by means of thoughts and emotions alone”
(Ferraro and Andreatta, 2010).
A medium is well favored by members of his or her community as he or
she is involved in healing rituals while in a possessed trance. A medium is
also capable of performing divination to predict future courses of action.
Most mediums tend to be females who perform other roles when not in
religious practice.
A priest tends to be a male whose sole preoccupation is to officiate
religious ceremonies and rituals. Due to his status in religious hierarchy, he
is highly regarded by community members.
Types of Religious Activities
Humans interact with the divine in various forms. There are five major
forms of religious activities.
Magic
This form of religious activity constitutes the “manipulation of
supernatural forces for the purpose of intervening in a wide range of human
activities and natural events” (Ferraro and Andreatta, 2010). Although
popularly related to forms of trickery, the anthropological definition of
magic is more complex than a fast hand maneuver of playing cards. Magic
deals with solving a current problem by seeking the intervention of the
divine through the performance and offering of gifts. The Native American
practice of rain dance to invoke deities to release rain is an example of
magic.
Divination
This religious activity intends to gain from the divine practical answers
for any concern that may range from war plans to marriage choices. One of
the most popular forms of divination is the I-Ching, an ancient Chinese
numerical system that is believed to predict future occurrences. This was
highly popular during the Warring States Period of China, as military
leaders utilized the I-Ching to strategize campaigns.
Sorcery and Witchcraft
Popularized by modern literature such as the Harry Potter novels,
sorcery and witchcraft have been depicted by media as a socially accepted
activity. However, in most societies where witchcraft and sorcery are
believed to exist, practitioners of these types of religious acts are usually
marginalized and ostracized as they are perceived to be bringers of
malevolence and misfortune.
A sorcerer inflicts harm on individuals with the use of witchcraft tools
such as dolls, wands, and medicines. The practice of voodoo is an example
of this, as practitioners use objects related to the victim such as hair or
pieces of their clothing to cause sickness or pain on them.
The practice of witchcraft promotes the same effect with a mere
difference in method. Unlike with sorcery that uses materials to inflict harm,
witchcraft only uses emotions and words of the practitioner to impact its
victim. The Filipino belief in kulam sa hangin, which inflicts harm on the
victim through curses uttered by a practitioner, is an example of this
religious activity.
Prayers, Feasts, and Sacrifices
These activities promote a direct interaction with the divine, as
individuals or groups communicate their thoughts and desires to the
supernatural through uttered requests (prayers), celebrations (feasts), and
gifts (sacrifices).
Beyond Walls 14.2
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
You are a visual sociologist who is tasked to document the practices
of a religious group in your town. As a visual sociologist, your method
of studying society is through the photographs that portray the social
realities of the people involved. To complete this task, you should take
10 photos of the activities and performances of the religious
organization that highlight its orientation and biases. For every photo,
write a 100-word abstract that would point out your findings and key
arguments. Submit the electronic copies to your teacher who will
evaluate your work based on accuracy of context, comprehensiveness of
abstract content, and aesthetic appeal.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What are the varying definitions of sorcery?
2. How do humans interact with the supernatural?
3. Why is there a demand to separate the church from the state?
4. How are religious institutions formed?
Religious Organizations
Human groups create various religious organizations depending on the
political and economic norms of their society. Anthropologists associate
religious organizations to the concept of cult. A cult is popularly defined as
a small group of individuals who have extreme religious beliefs and
practices. On the contrary, Anthony Wallace, an anthropologist, argued that
a cult is “not as group of people, rather [is] an organized system associated
with cultural beliefs and practices which also make it a social structure”
(Ember, Ember, and Peregrine, 2010).
There are four types of cults: individualistic cults, shamanistic cults,
communal cults, and ecclesiastical cults. The degree of complexity of these
organizations is related to the extent by which labor specialization is
enforced in the society. Figure 14.6 presents individualistic cults as the least
complex religious structure, whereas ecclesiastical cults are held as the most
complex.
Fig. 14.6.
Graph on complexity of religious structures
Adapted from: http://nchsholmberg.weebly.com/uploads/1/0/0/1/1001804
6/religious_organizations2012.pdf (accessed 30 October
2015)
Individualistic cults tend to be practiced in food-collecting societies
where equality is central to the group's culture. Due to this group dynamics,
individuals are able to access the divine without restrictions or need for an
intercessor. The practice of no role specialization in these groups further
foster the capacity of every individual to communicate with the
supernatural. The Crow Indian practice of vision quest is an example of this.
In this activity, a Crow Indian male goes on a solitary journey to gain a
divine revelation on his nature and identity. Participants of this activity often
return to their group with a vision of whom they should be and what their
goal in life is. This is not an exclusive organization as it can be merged with
other forms of cults.
Shamanistic cults are similar to the structure of individualist cults except
that this type believes in the shaman or medicine man. This cult is also
present in most egalitarian societies that are based on economies focused on
foraging, horticulture, and pastoralism. The functions of the shaman
includes healing, intercession, and punishment. The authority of the shaman
is rooted in the belief of the participants on his religious experiences. The
capacity of the shaman to heal is gained through training from older
shamans. The legitimacy of the shaman's power is temporary depending on
his perceived efficiency.
Similar to shamanistic cults, communal cults allow a group direct access
to the divine except for situations wherein the expertise of a shaman or a
witch is needed. This cult is often present in societies with labor
specialization. In such societies, a specific group of individuals has direct
access to scarce values and resources based on their economic contribution.
For example, pastoral societies tend to favor men as they are the ones
primarily involved in animal herding. In such societies, men are also given
more access to religious activities and rituals.
The most common feature of ecclesiastical cults is having full-time
religious practitioners referred to as priests. This type of cult is often present
in highly stratified societies where individuals have unequal access to values
and resources. Reflecting this characteristic, ecclesiastical cults encourage
unequal access to the supernatural creating the need for regular intercessors.
Big Idea
Religious tolerance and acceptance stem from an
understanding of the plurality of religious orientation and their
practices.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How are religious institutions different from one another?
2. What are the varying definitions of a “cult”?
Extend Your Knowledge
The US has currently seen the rise of religious bigotry that targets
specific religious groups that are unduly associated to extremist
movements.
Go to http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/americas-true-historyof-religious-tolerance-61312684/ to read an article presenting the history
of religious tolerance in the US. It will provide you a background on the
current religion-based discrimination occurring in the US.
Essential Learning
Humans have created religions and beliefs in the supernatural to help
them cope with their daily struggles with their environment. The type of
religion present in a society mirrors the social structures present in that
society, such that monotheism is typically found in societies that have a
unitary form of leadership. Exclusivist and stratified concepts associated
to religion are the factors that lead to discrimination due to intolerance of
varying orientation.
Module
15
Health
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Recognize the practice of medical pluralism in light of cultural
diversity and relativism.
2. Differentiate perspectives in understanding the concept of health.
Theories on Social Health
Social health is one of the most contested territories in public policy as
questions on equality, quality, and availability of health care remain
submerged in international and local political dialogues. Paul Farmer
(1997), an anthropologist, presented the concept of structural violence to
refer to the systemic process of putting several sectors of society in greater
vulnerability to dreaded diseases. Farmer argued that in the case of HIVAIDS in Haiti, individuals who contracted the disease were made vulnerable
to it by the lack of institutional provisions that allow for equitable access to
health information and resources.
The concept of being well, or being healthy, varies among groups of
people, as each group subscribes to its own versions of explanations that
aim to answer for health-related circumstances. Arthur Kleinman et al.
(2010) argued that health issues are best understood within the frame of the
individual's local moral world, which embodies the rationalizations of
individuals about their illnesses. These rationalizations are often rooted on
their set of values and morality. Hence, a person's interpretation of cancer
may range from a very scientific perspective to a morally dictated one,
wherein such health condition can be perceived as punishment from god for
transgressions committed in the past.
Big Idea
Health and well-being should be understood based on the
specific attributes of a cultural group.
Reflect Upon
With a partner, discuss a disease or illness that is believed to exist by
Filipinos but lacks scientific proof. Examples of these are usog, bati, and
pasma. Discuss with your partner the extent of your belief on these
illnesses and the types of remedies that are often used for them. Present
your topic in class.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How does structural violence make meaning to health issues?
2. What is the local moral world?
Culture-specific Syndromes and Illnesses
“Puwera usog”—this is a catchphrase often heard from elderly Filipinos
when they compliment an infant for its weight and size. This is at times
accompanied by the marking of a cross on the foot of the child using a
saliva-coated fingertip. Is there a scientific truth to this?
Science provides a universal understanding of diseases. However,
despite the breadth of scientific discoveries on diseases and their cures,
some scientific truths on diseases remain obscured by local interpretations
of them.
Is mental illness universal? A person who suffers from schizophrenia
experiences disconnection from reality, which causes hallucinations,
confusion, paranoia, and acceptance of false beliefs. Banerjee (2012), citing
the work of Bauer et al. (2011) on the cultural variation on the treatment and
understanding of schizophrenia, revealed that even the symptoms of the
illness vary per culture:
They found that not only were there across-the-board differences in the rates of incidence of
each of these types of hallucinations (with auditory hallucinations being the most common
and gustatory hallucinations being the least common), but there were also pronounced
differences in hallucination patterns among the countries (Bauer et al., 2011). West African
countries Ghana and Nigeria had the highest rates of auditory hallucinations at 90.8% and
85.4%, respectively, while Austria had the lowest, at 66.9% (Bauer et al., 2011). While most
countries had relatively high rates of visual hallucinations (e.g. Austria: 39.1%, Ghana:
53.9%), only 3.9% of Pakistani patients and 9.5% of Georgian patients experienced them….
Among the Algonquian peoples in Canada and the United States, a
legendary creature known as the wendigo is believed to exist. This half
demon and half beast creature is known for consuming human flesh. It is
also believed that humans can be possessed by the wendigo and turn to
cannibalism. Western medicine in the 1900s labeled this behavior as
Wendigo psychosis, a culturally specific mental disorder observed among
native North Americans. This is a contentious label as there are no proven
cases of wendigo. Members of the Algonquian culture argue that their
legends have been misinterpreted by Western medicine.
Another type of culturally specific disease is that of Latah which is
observed in parts of Southeast Asia. This mental disorder embodies a set of
abnormal behavior such as uncontrollable laughter, cursing, screaming or
even repetitive movements and statements. This has been labeled as a startle
disorder due to the fact that the abnormal behavior is usually triggered by
shock that an individual feels.
Although such abnormal behaviors have been observed in Malaysia, the
Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand, a similar phenomenon has been
observed among the jumping Frenchmen of Maine. According to George
Miller Beard, a 19th century neurologist, the French-descended lumberjacks
of Maine and Quebec, Canada exhibited excessive startle reflex that made
them highly suggestible, such that anyone can make them say or do things
that they would not normally do. The connection between Latah and the
Jumping Frenchmen syndrome has not been made yet, as the debate on the
causes of these behaviors continues.
Beyond Walls 15.1
Go Online
Go to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VrYmQDiunSc to watch a
lecture of Dr. Jessica Dere on the interrelationship between culture and
mental health approaches. After watching the lecture, create a concept
map that will depict mental illness in the Philippines. A concept map is
a visual representation of concepts and their connections to one another.
Your concept map should highlight the cultural specific notions and
practices that we associate with mental illness. This activity can be done
in groups.
The phrase “run amuck” refers to a sudden attack made by an individual
against a group of people causing injuries or even death. This is rooted in
the Malay word mengamok that means “to make a furious and desperate
charge” (Hempel et al., 2000). Although posing a great threat to security and
peace, amok is understood in Malaysia within the frame of religion, as it is
believed to be a by-product of a spiritual possession of an individual by an
evil tiger spirit. This belief complex allows for reconciliatory processes after
an individual runs amuck. Recent studies have confirmed that this
previously exclusive abnormal behavior is present in several societies across
the world, making it less culturally specific.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How can diseases be culturally specific?
2. Why is mental illness not a universal experience?
Extend Your Knowledge
In the Philippines, the Mental Health Act was enacted in May 2017.
This is considered a landmark law, as it is projected that through this law,
the pervading issues on mental health will finally be addressed.
Addressing these pervading issues is important because mental health
issues often lead to discrimination and stigmatization.
Go to http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2017/04/03/mental-health-actexpand-education-services.html to read the details of the Act and identify
the key policies that could be created using the allowance provided by the
law.
Systems of Diagnosis, Prevention, and Healing
The process of understanding the nature of the disease and the actions
that must be made to arrest its development vary per society. In fact, even in
one society, individuals are often observed to have differing opinions as to
how their health conditions can be efficiently managed. There are three
healing systems that people subscribe to: traditional, Western, and
alternative.
Traditional Medicine
At the heart of traditional medicine is the local moral world of an
individual's society. This includes not only morality but also the spiritual
perspectives that are held true by its members. Crucial in the practice of
traditional medicine is the belief that health conditions are interrelated to
human and divine interactions. This implies that a cold is not just a cold, as
it can be a form of a reminder from the divine to pursue morally upright
actions and decisions. Healing a sickness can be both community-wide or
individually sought through the mediation of a healer.
According to WHO (2007), there are six types of traditional healers
based on the scope of their healing functions:
Shamans. The shaman cures the sick using special powers that he has
received during state of trance. Healing is often done in the house of the sick
who is believed to have lost his or her soul. It is the task of the shaman to
return the lost soul to its body to cure the illness.
Fig. 15.1.
A female shaman in Mongolia
Source:
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/12/shamans/drake-photography
(accessed 30 October 2015)
Magic-based healers. This type of healer uses magic to counter the
illness experienced by an individual who is believed to have such condition
due to black magic and curses. The rituals that the healer can use vary per
society. Among the Nyoro of Uganda, such healers often facilitate the
process of vomiting by the sick to cleanse the latter from all sins and
transgressions.
Fortune tellers. Some individuals believe that their disease has some
underlying spiritual explanation that, if learned, can be addressed and
promote healing. Often, individuals who seek the help of fortune tellers are
the ones suffering from psychological and emotional pains.
Traditional birth attendants. These healers do not only assist expecting
mothers in their process of giving birth. They also perform traditional
massages on individuals who are complaining of physical pain that may also
be rooted in psychological issues.
Trance-based healers. These healers provide relief for sickness and pain
through meditation and trance-based activities. They believe that the nature
and appropriate cure for the sickness can only be uncovered through
meditation. As such, each consultation, despite its similarity to another
ailment, will often produce different rationalization and cure.
Traditional medicine experts (TMEs). These healers closely resemble
the Western concept of healers, such that the TMEs ask the sick individual
of the symptoms that he or she is experiencing. Drawing from that the
responses, the TMEs prescribe a concoction of plants and other natural
ingredients that are believed to be efficient in arresting the disease.
Western Medicine
The primary characteristic of Western medicine is its reliance on science
as the sole source of knowledge and information for health-related issues.
The science-based approaches of this system allow for strict and calculated
approaches to diseases. Laboratory tests are made to confirm the symptoms
narrated by the sick. In most cases, it is highly depersonalized due to the
expected practice of professionalism among practitioners. This type of
healing system is most commonly practiced in urban societies.
Recent issues on global health care that are situated in the Global South
have cast critiques on the immutability of Western medicine. As some
societies reject treatments that they perceive as violating their norms and
traditions, Western medicine took a trajectory of medical practice
inclusiveness. This implies the cooperation between the Western medical
practitioner and the traditional healer in addressing health issues such as
HIV, tuberculosis, malaria, and other dreaded diseases.
Alternative Healing System
This is also known as complimentary alternative medicine (CAM).
Unlike traditional medicine that competes with Western medicine, CAM
recognizes the latter's importance and efficiency by accepting its
prescriptions and techniques while creating alternative forms of healing.
One of the most accepted forms of CAM is acupuncture, which is believed
to release negative energies through the cleansing of pressure points. Similar
to traditional healing, CAM is often without concrete scientific basis, but it
has been practiced through time by its followers.
Fig. 15.2.
Acupuncture
Source:
https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Observer/Pix/pictur
es/2013/5/30/1369940437382/Acupuncture-needles-in-a-011.jpg?
w=1200&q=85&auto=format&sharp=10&s=2527318d891dc92374a32494576
c0bde
Beyond Walls 15.2
Read and Answer
Go
to
https://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1746-4269-314 to read an article that discusses the intersections among biodiversity,
traditional medicine, and public health in the pursuit of inclusive and
pluralistic health systems. After reading the article, answer the
following questions:
1. How are biodiversity and traditional medicine interrelated?
2. How are public health and traditional medicine interrelated?
How do human activities pose risks to the sustainability of
3. traditional medicine?
Health as a Human Right
WHO (2013) has defined the “right to health” as the fundamental right
of every human to be able to live healthy through equal “access to timely,
acceptable, and affordable health care of appropriate quality.” Shown on
Figure 15.3, an individual's right to health is not only focused on access to
health care but is also embedded with underlying determinants (UDs) such
as water, sanitation, and food. Such inclusiveness of the definition presents
the argument that without proper and acceptable access to the UD, an
individual's health will be vulnerable to diseases.
Fig. 15.3.
WHO framework on the right to health
In low-income countries, the challenge to provide equitable health care
access becomes a daunting task as other UDs are either lacking or
inefficient. WHO (2013) identified that roughly 150 million people face
economic challenges due to health care issues. This number poses a critical
question on policy-making in countries. Several questions that rise from this
include the following: (1) How much should the state subsidize health care
costs? (2) Should the state fully subsidize the health care cost for every
citizen? (3) What policies should it be allowed to make regarding the
process of ensuring that its citizens are safe?
Big Idea
Successful medical interventions are defined by their cultural
relevance. Without the acceptance of the recipient society,
interventions just remain inapplicable and inefficient.
Essential Learning
Health and well-being are understood differently across cultures. The
means and processes needed to attain these also vary per culture. The
primacy of western medicine is not universally accepted by other
societies, who believe in the efficiency of their health systems that are
labeled as alternative medicine. A more collaborative engagement among
health systems can provide a more inclusive and comprehensive approach
to health and well-being.
Module
16
Social Change
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Analyze social, political, and cultural change.
2. Recognize the common concerns or intersections of
anthropology, sociology, and political science with respect to the
phenomenon of change.
3. Identify new challenges faced by human populations in
contemporary society.
4. Describe how human societies adapt to new challenges in the
physical, social, and cultural environment.
5. Develop a plan of action for community-based response to
change.
What comes to your mind when you hear the word change? Change is a
state of becoming different from the status quo. Just like humans that
experience biological changes through time, societies are subject to change
through the instigation of various factors such as the environment
technology. Social change is a concept used to portray any changes in
human social systems (Stets and Burke, 2003). Social change may happen
in any social relationships, social structures, organizations, and institutions.
In general, all changes that take place in human society that has a domino
effect to all social systems are considered a form of social change.
Early sociologists such as Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Herbert
Spencer, Talcott Parsons, and Karl Marx have various perspectives
regarding social change. These thinkers provided theories to explain the
state of social changes in human society. Comte, Durkheim, and Spencer
argue that social change constantly happens in an identical way. This
denotes that all societies undergo specific processes and stages before
reaching the complete level of evolution or change. This perspective is
guided by Charles Darwin's concept of evolution.
Following these perspectives, Parsons believes that social change is
associated with homeostasis or the state of balance (equilibrium). This
theory supposed that any change in a specific social aspect necessitates
adjustment in other aspects to avoid imbalance and maintain social order.
On the contrary, Marx argues that social change is a proactive state wherein
people will only attain social change or development when freedom and
equality is already attained. More recent perspectives such that of Tim
Dyson's argue that social change is interrelated with the concept of
demographic transition, wherein the changes in the composition of the
population results in changes in social structures. Series of efforts has been
done to further explain the concept of social change. However, the argument
never stops, as change in any human society remains to be constant.
Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change
All the changes that happen in human society are deeply rooted on these
three aspects: cultural, social, and political. These three are not mutually
exclusive as they are interrelated structures and processes.
Innovation
Innovation may be in the form of new scientific knowledge, new beliefs,
and additional inventions. When applied on technology, new ideas and
concepts can revolutionize how a population behaves in response to their
environment. As what you have learned in an earlier module, the innovation
in farming methods and technology brought about the establishment of
permanent settlement among early humans who were primarily nomadic
prior to the shift.
Traditional perspectives on innovation claim that innovation is mostly
dictated by dominant groups. However, this has been proven a limited
perspective as simple societies have been seen to have exhibited the
capacity to innovate and alter their established forms of subsistence and
systems. The extent to which a society is compelled to embark in the pursuit
of developing new forms of living and technology is dependent on the
pressures that factors such as population composition, environment, and
economics put on the status quo. Presently, innovation has taken a great role
in creating new trends in human society. This mechanism explains the
continuous growth and succession of the different trends in every society.
Diffusion
One of the earliest and most important forms of cultural change is
known as diffusion. Diffusion involves the process of transferring cultural
traits and concepts from one human group to the other. Such a process
involves two cultures in contact with one another. A specific cultural trait
can be introduced to another culture through facilitating factors such as
migration and media. For instance, host societies of tourism destinations
have been observed to have experienced a form of culture change as locals
adapt new forms of behavior and perspectives from the tourist (Urry, 2005).
The ages of colonization and imperialism have also intensified the
process of cultural diffusion as dominating societies enforced their culture
on the subjugated ones. The Spanish-American heritage of Filipinos is still
observable today in our various cultural traits and systems such as language,
education, public health, and religion. Even as early as the rise of
civilizations, cultural diffusion has been actively in process, as invading
societies bring with them their traditions and beliefs that were imposed on
the survivors of defeated societies.
Diffusion becomes a factor in social change as it allows for the
incorporation of new perspectives and practices in the existing cultural
fabric of a society.
Acculturation and Assimilation
Cultural change can also be triggered by cultural adaptation processes
called acculturation and assimilation. Acculturation is the process of
learning a culture other than one's own. This implies that it is geared toward
second-culture learning. This process is primarily a result of the interaction
between two cultures. In most cases, the dominant society's cultural
complex is adapted by the less dominant group. The term is believed to have
been coined by J.W. Powell (1887) to describe the “psychological changes
induced by cross-cultural imitation.”
Assimilation is a gradual process of culture change that allows for the
indistinguishable cultural similarity between two different cultural groups.
This process is often observed in immigrant societies wherein the migrants
often assimilate the culture of the locals to adapt to the new society's rules
and regulations. This characteristic separates assimilation from acculturation
as the individuals who experienced the latter would still be distinguishable
from the other society. For example, a Filipino who lives in the Philippines
may display certain cultural traits (in his or her language, food preference,
or clothing) that resemble North American culture. However, the totality of
the Filipino's culture is not similar to the North American culture, as it has
peculiarities that are not present in the other (e.g., belief in the healing
powers of the Nazareno, belief in the existence of aswangs, tradition of
pagmamano). Compare this scenario with a Filipino who was raised in the
United States. Given that this person's social and physical environment is all
soaked in that culture, the similarity of his or her set of cultural traits would
be parallel to those of the locals. This means that the Filipino who grew up
in the United States would be practicing a culture that is almost the same as
the Americans, as compared with the Filipino who grew up in a USinfluenced country such as the Philippines.
Big Idea
Social change is a constant process experienced within a
society.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. What factors lead to assimilation?
2. What is acculturation?
3. How can innovation and diffusion promote culture change?
Social Contradictions and Tensions
Social contradictions and tensions are two inevitable circumstances
among societies that can be seen in different forms such as issues, problems,
struggles, and conflicts. Conflicts arise in every society because of certain
societal differences or inequalities. In many instances, cultural, social, and
political differences often lead to disagreement and conflict. Moreover,
people who seem to be oppressed or violated often form collective action.
Collective action refers to any action being taken by a certain group who
shares common aims and goals to achieve specific changes or objective that
would benefit the members of the group (Ostrom, 2004).
For instance, ethnic groups with specific cultures and practices often
generate conflict with other groups because of their differences. Sometimes,
conflict happens within ethnic groups especially when there is a dispute
between the ethnic ruler and its people. In terms of class struggle, those
individuals from the lower class are deprived of rights and privileges, unlike
those in the higher social class. Marx's idea of social change states that the
oppressed or the working class would initiate change through a
revolutionary movement. In modern times, this situation is evident because
of the inequalities among societies. These revolutionary movements may be
in the form of class protests and mass demonstration. The “Occupy Wall
Street” movement that launched street-held rallies and critiques on corporate
interests in 2011 was a result of the public's distaste on the influence of the
financial sector on governments, which exacerbated preexisting issues on
inequality and corruption. One of the key issues raised by the movement is
the unequal access to resources within the population, wherein only 1% of
the population experience wealth and 99% of it are economically restricted.
Fig. 16.1.
Collective action in Wall Street, New York
Source:
http://www.brasil247.com/images/2/da/2dab1bb05a2bc0bbc62d8e492afa9bc
b232cfe41.jpg
Local public services are part of the provisions expected by an
individual from his or her own government. This includes services relating
to education, electricity, health care, fire protection, social services, housing,
and broadcasting, among others. The government is expected by its
constituents to provide these services to them either through direct
administration by its bureaus or through private institutions that it is
funding. The legitimacy of a government is often measured by the public
based on its efficiency in providing and securing these services for them.
Failure to deliver these services can trigger public clamor for socio-political
changes.
Another most common source of social change is the subject involving
gender issues. Gender differences, inequalities, and discrimination are not
yet eliminated in the social world. Consequently, more gender organizations
are being formed, and several initiatives or measures are being taken to fight
gender issues especially gender discrimination. These organizations share
one common goal—to bring change in the way people see or perceive the
concept of gender and its components.
Beyond Walls 16.1
Go Online
Go to https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/04/6-ways-socialmedia-is-changing-the-world/ to read an article that discusses the impact
of social media on the process of culture change. After reading the
article, create a three-minute vlog discussing your extent of usage or
dependence on social media. On your vlog, share your insights on the
future of social media and its possible impact on human societies.
Ethnic Conflict, Armed Conflict, and Terrorism
These three forms of social tensions are grouped together due to their
violent nature in resolving social issues. Ethnic conflict is also referred to as
ethnic war and is usually characterized by homogenous cultural groups
having an armed struggle with each other or with other social institutions.
The war that ravaged post-Cold War USSR saw genocide occurring in most
of its former territories. One of which was Bosnia-Herzegovina, which had
the Bosnian Muslims, Serbs, and Croats attacking one another to secure
territory for their group. This war resulted in the displacement of roughly 2
700 000 Bosnians to parts of Europe and Asia.
Armed conflicts are mostly political in nature as non-state actors clamor
for their rights that are perceived to be withheld from them by the state. The
Philippines has witnessed several armed conflicts with non-state actors such
as the New People's Army (NPA) and the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom
Fighters (BIFF).
Fig. 16.2.
The 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center
Source:
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/pHwYTJSkSKc/TmzMH3ffGfI/AAAAAAAAADw/EdYkC483NfI/ s1600/TwinTowers-Burning%255B1%255D.jpg
Acts of terrorism are highly political activities that are meant to give a
statement to organizations or states that are believed to have hegemonic
power over subjugated territories or sectors of society. The attack on the
Twin Towers (World Trade Center) in New York in 2001 changed the
political landscape of the United States, as it launched its intensive
campaign against international terrorist groups such as the Al-Qaeda.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. Why is collective action crucial to the process of social change?
2. What are the different types of social tension?
New Challenges to Human Adaptation and Social Change
In modern times, new challenges have been faced by society that require
members to strive for social change for the purpose of adaptation and
development. Any changes that would take place in the human environment
greatly affect human adaptation and survival. There are two major
challenges being faced by various countries and societies: climate change
and transnational migration.
Global Warming and Climate Change
Global warming and climate change have been identified as key
indicators for policy-making in most countries, as all present-day
governments have admitted to the magnitude of implications that these two
factors can have on their citizens’ lives.
What is global warming? The United States Environmental Protection
Agency (2012) defined the process as follows:
The Earth's climate is fueled by the Sun. Most of the Sun's energy, called solar radiation, is
absorbed by the Earth, but some is reflected back into space. A natural layer of atmospheric
gases absorbs a portion of this reflected solar radiation, eventually releasing some of it into
space, but forcing much of it back to Earth. There it warms the Earth's surface creating what
is known as the natural “greenhouse effect.”
Fig. 16.3.
The greenhouse effect
Source:
http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/aqtrnd95/globwarm.html (accessed 30 October
2015)
Linked to this issue is the phenomenon of climate change. The United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2012) defines this as
“a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human
activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in
addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time
periods.”
Some of the expected and observed impacts of global warming and
climate change include rise in sea level, increase in wildfire events, severe
droughts, increase in the frequency of severe storms in many areas,
flooding, and increase in weather variability. The rise in temperature in most
areas can also trigger health risks through the spread of vector-borne
diseases (e.g., malaria and dengue), and increase in frequency of heatstroke
and skin diseases.
Although most of these enumerated risks and effects are physical and
environmental in nature, the social sphere of human life is also affected. The
changes in the environment can dramatically alter the behavior of the
society that lives in it. The loss of farmlands to drought has been observed
as a catalyst for rapid urbanization of some communities, as farmers and
their families migrate to the city to adapt a new form of subsistence
(Gonzalez, 2013).
The increase in mortality rate in populations affected by vector-borne
diseases can alter population control policies, which can require the increase
in either birth rate or migration rate.
Extend Your Knowledge
One of the growing concerns in relation to climate change is the food
and water security of vulnerable populations.
Go
to
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221260901400020X to
read an article that discusses the challenges on the supply of food and
water among vulnerable populations. In these populations, climate
change-related occurrences damage their key sources of sustenance. As
you read the article, identify the challenges that relate to the Philippine
experience.
Transnational Migration and OFWs
Transnational migration is the process by which individuals from one
country migrate to another country for economic, political, and social
reasons. The growth of transnational migration has been observed in the
past decades as the world becomes more globalized and technology
becomes more complex, allowing for easier transfer (Duany, 2011). In 1910,
Rudolph Borne's idea associated the concept of transnational migration to
describe new immigrants in a certain country (Ozkul, 2014). The constant
migration of people, whether in-migration or out-migration, creates social
changes in societies as their population composition is altered by the
decrease or the increase in people living in it. Social dynamics is also
altered, as migrants establish networks that are not limited to their own
country, as they also navigate the social sphere of other countries where they
find affinity with similar ethnic or religious groups. Pries (2005) argues that
“transnational networks were taking shape within fluid social spaces and
were reproducing and creating ‘the being’ in two places simultaneously.”
One of the best examples of transnational migration is the condition of
OFWs across different geographical locations. What do you think is the
major factor that drives Filipinos to go abroad? San Juan (2014) identified
that “on average, 3 400 Filipinos leave daily for work abroad, over a million
per year, to join the nearly ten million Filipinos (out of 90 million) already
out of the Philippines, scattered around the world.” The root causes of this
large number of migration cases among Filipinos are their families and
issues on development. A huge number of Filipinos are experiencing
unemployment and poverty. This condition gives them the drive to pursue
for better careers and lives by working abroad. Transnational migration is a
big leap and challenge for Filipinos because there is no assurance of success
and development.
The economic diaspora of Filipinos have impacted our society in broad
ways that include both positive and negative outcomes. The topmost
identified positive effect of the OFW phenomenon is the economic
development of the country through their remittances. It is for this reason
that OFWs gained the popular title of being Bagong Bayani, as their
constant remittances to their families in the country have allowed for a
consistent cash flow in the country. However, the high rate of migration out
of the country has also caused the phenomenon of brain drain, the
decreasing number of well-trained and equipped members of the labor force,
as they take job offers in other countries that assure them significantly
higher compensation.
Reflect Upon
One in every three Filipinos personally knows of an OFW. This is an
indicator of the growing number of OFWs. One of the impacts of the
OFW phenomenon is the reframing of the Filipino family. Because of this
social phenomenon, the statistics of one-parent households to no-parent
households are observed to be on the rise.
In a 250-word essay, discuss your position about OFWs. Why do you
think many Filipinos decide to be OFWs? Would you prefer to be an
OFW? What are the reasons that could make you take employment
outside the country?
Responding to Social, Political, and Cultural Change
Every societal change entails certain reactions, responses, and
adaptations. Individuals have several kinds of responses (positive and
negative) to these growing numbers of societal changes. Some easily adapt
with the new changes being imposed, but others reject systemic changes,
causing them to establish social movements to defeat or transform what has
been already changed. The following section of this module gives you the
idea regarding the different major responses to social, political, and cultural
changes.
Inclusive Citizenship and Participatory Governance
The opportunity to take part in the political system is such a fundamental tenet of the
democratic system of government that its very existence is rarely questioned. People must be
able to have their say—to vote, to engage in political debate and to let those in power know
their views on issues which concern them. This is what democracy is about.
(Richardson 1983:1 in Aulich, 2009)
In a democratic society, citizen participation in politics is encouraged.
However, this participation is sometimes contested. One of the leading
organizations espousing the goal of having more governments allowing
intensive citizen interaction in policy-making is the UN. In the 2007 report
of the UN Economic and Social Council, the organization highlighted the
importance of participatory governance stating:
Governance entails processes and institutions that contribute to public decision-making.
When those processes and institutions concern the public sector, the term public governance
is used. It can be argued that there are three categories of public governance: civic, political
and development. Civic and political governance deal with issues that are related to human
rights. Development governance mainly pertains to planning, budgeting, monitoring and
accountability of socioeconomic development policies and programmes. Participatory
governance is one of many institutional strategies of development governance. Citizen
engagement is the desired outcome or logical end of participatory governance. Participation
is a fundamental goal and object of value in and of itself. That is evident from the fact that
the right to participate in a society's decision-making processes has been accepted by the
world community as a fundamental human right. Participation also has instrumental value
because it can help achieve other primary goals. In particular, participation can help to
deepen democracy, strengthen social capital, facilitate efficiency and sustained growth, and
promote pro-poor initiatives, equity and social justice.
The need for check and balance in a government that aims to reduce the
systemic risk for corruption is also addressed by the existence of active
citizen participation in governance. A politically engaged citizenry is more
committed to elect public officials who are qualified and competent. This
political climate can only be achieved if the citizenry has sufficient political
trust on the government to accomplish its societal goals and ideals. The
extent by which citizens can be implored to participate in governance also
depends on their political will and perceived efficacy.
Political efficacy relates to an individual's perception of his or her
capacity to influence the political system toward a political end. Political
will is the extent of engagement that an individual has with the political
system in the attempt to achieve a goal. Given these two preconditions, it
can be said that an individual who has negative political efficacy and low
political will may not be inclined to participate in the conduct of governance
as he or she believes that he or she is not capable of influencing the system.
Youth volunteerism has been one of the key observable social changes
in the recent decades. Most non-state institutions have targeted the youth to
participate in the implementation of their advocacies to socially integrate
them, as they have often been related to socially disruptive behaviors linked
to forms of deviance associated with substance abuse. In Africa, engaging
the youth to participate in the achievement of the continent's developmental
goals has been considered a key indicator of its success in realizing a more
inclusive citizenship.
New Forms of Media and Social Networking
Fig. 16.4.
Evolution of media
Source:
Mike Keefe (http://livinoutloudkat.blogspot.com/, accessed 30 October 2015)
Media has already undergone a series of technological innovation and
development. During ancient times, written historical records were found
around the world, and they served as the medium of communication. As
society continued to undergo changes and development, movable type
printers were used to spread information to people. Consequently, mass
publication was made to ensure that messages and information reach more
people, allowing them to have enough information and public awareness. As
society experienced modernization, several forms of media—particularly
social media—arose, resulting in modernized development of
communication. Table 16.1 shows the most commonly used social media in
the present generation.
Table 16.1. Types of Social Media and Their Characteristics
Type
Characteristics
Type
Social networking
Characteristics
Services that allow you to connect with other people of similar
interests and background. Usually they consist of a profile, various
ways to interact with other users, and ability to setup groups, to
name a few.
Bookmarking sites
Services that allow you to save, organize, and manage links to
various Web sites and resources on the Internet. Most allow you to
“tag” your links to make them easy to search and share.
Social news
Services that allow people to post various news items or links to
outside articles and then allows its users to “vote” on the items. The
voting is the core social aspect as the items that get the most votes
are displayed the most prominently. The community decides which
news items get seen by more people.
Media sharing
Services that allow you to upload and share various media such as
pictures and videos.
Microblogging
Services that focus on short updates that are pushed out to anyone
subscribed to receive the updates.
Blog comments and forum
Online forums allow members to hold conversations by posting
messages.
Source:
Grahl, 2014
The different forms of social media have specific characteristics that can
overlap. Presently, these forms serve as one of the fastest and biggest media
of communication. Social media has also been used as a medium for
change. For instance, individuals and organizations use social media to
promote their initiatives and advocacies, which in turn encourages more
support from the viewers. Social media can also provide information to
people across the world. Hence, communicating thoughts, trends, or
campaigns have become global in scope and on real-time. Talents and
capacities are also shared globally and instantaneously with just a press of a
button. This allowed for the rise of Internet sensations and global trends.
Communication has also been revolutionized by the development of
texting. From a very exclusive privilege of instant communication due to the
expensive charges of mobile calls, texting equalized this field by allowing
more individuals to communicate with one another at a cheaper rate. The
Philippines has been one of the countries that highly benefit from this
development, as evidenced by the 43% margin of texters in the Philippines,
as compared to their American counterparts.
Texting has also allowed for the creation of subcultures in the country
such as the jejemons, who are infamous for sending text messages that
reformulate English and Filipino words into near incomprehensibility, such
that a typical greeting of “hello po,” for example, is transformed to “eowz
phowz.”
Social Movements
Fig. 16.5.
Social movement model
Source:
Champions for youth 2013
As shown in Figure 16.5, social movement is a process that involves
three elements: the individual, the group, and the society. Individuals are
aware of their personal qualities, characteristics, and values, enabling them
to act according to what they practice or believe in. When they experience
any form of change in the society where they belong to, reactions and
responses follow. Then, this individual finds another individual or group
that has views and sentiments similar to his or hers. As a result, there is a
series of social interactions between the individual and the group, allowing
them to collaborate with same goals and objectives. These goals focus on
bringing change for their welfare and for the common good. This process
paves the way to the formation of social movements among different
societies.
The classic categorization of social movements came from the
anthropologist David Aberle (1966), who stated that movements can be
categorized according to the number of their participants and the extent of
the movement's impact on structure.
Fig. 16.6.
Aberle's categories of social movements
Alternative social movements have limited goals that are often related to
specific parts of the structure that specific individuals would like to alter.
This may include social movements advocating for individual's benefit such
as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), which primarily functions as a support
group for recovering alcoholics. When the scope of the change intended is
limited but the membership to the movement is on a wider scale, then this
creates a reformative type of social movement. An example is the group of
individuals who joined under the banner of pro-reproductive health bill
during the deliberation process of the law. The change that this group
wanted is the availability of reproductive health options for everyone in
society regardless of socioeconomic background.
Redemptive social movements tend to gather participants from specific
sectors of the society with a goal of radically changing the status of
individual members. Religious groups and cults have such impacts.
Last, when the change that is expected is radical and the beneficiary
includes everyone, a revolutionary social movement is created. The
communist revolutionary movement in China led by Mao Tsetung is an
example of this, as it changed the entire social structure of China.
Big Idea
Social change is constant due to the pressure exerted by the
environment, technology, and social movements based on lived
social issues.
Beyond Walls 16.2
Apply It in Real Life
Track: Academic
In the Philippines, suicide among teenagers was documented to be
increasing in the past years. Although the number of cases remains
lower than in other countries, there are still a significant number of
recorded suicides in the country.
You are a guidance counselor at a senior high school. Your goal is to
increase awareness among your students on the topic of mental health
and the available services for them should they have issues that could
lead them to consider suicide. Your task is to create a three-page
brochure containing the following information: mental health programs
available in your school, impact of suicide to families and society,
significance of counselling, and means to cope with personal issues.
Your teacher will evaluate your brochure based on accuracy of content,
aesthetic quality, and relatability to readers. You can do this activity
with a partner.
You may read this article for reference on the current state of suicide
among
Filipino
teenagers:
http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/lifestyle/healthandwellness/524070/
special-report-suicide-and-the-pinoy-youth/story/.
The Dynamics of Social Movements
Fig. 16.7.
Dynamics of social movement
Adapted from: Blumer (1969), and Tilly (1978)
Using a unilinear evolutionary perspective, social movements are
believed to follow a transitory process that commences with its emergence
as solitary units that soon coalesce to create stronger support systems. This
coalition necessitates the bureaucratization of the movement. As the
movement fights for its causes, its members experience five processes:
success, failure, co-optation, repression, and going mainstream. Whatever
trajectory social movements take, they all cease to exist after sometime.
What Have I Learned So Far?
1. How are social movements formed?
2. Why is participative governance important in social dynamics?
3. What is the role of social movements in the process of social
change?
4. What are the different types of social movements according to
Aberle's framework?
Essential Learning
Social change is an inevitable stage in social processes, as social
structures adapt to the pressures exerted by factors such as the
environment, new forms of technology, and population shift. The shifts in
social structures are necessary to ensure the survival of human
populations. When the pressures of the environment remain strong and
the social structures do not accommodate the strains, social issues occur.
These social issues then bring forth social movements that clamor for
changes in institutions.
Culminating Output
The fields of sociology, anthropology, and political science provide
us with a critical lens in viewing social realities. Through these
disciplines, we can understand social processes with scientific rigor and
create intervention programs to social issues with keen relevance. For
your culminating output, your class will organize a one-day
development forum for vulnerable sectors of your society. Your
development forum should feature dialogues and trainings with
representatives of different sectors such as livelihood training,
reproductive health dialogue, human rights dialogue, and social services
information dissemination.
Due to the needed preparations for this event, the whole class needs
to function as one unit. You may divide the class into several programbased committees who will be in charge of the activities related to the
program. For example, the livelihood program committee shall be
tasked to assess the potential participants of the training, the types of
livelihood training that will be given, and the logistics that will be
needed to execute the program.
After the implementation of each program, participants will be
expected to provide an evaluation of their experiences based on the
feasibility of your training to real-life applications, level of
organization, and relevance of your proposed intervention to their
experienced issues.
Your teacher will evaluate you as a group based on your level of
preparation, efficiency of your execution of the program components,
and relevance of your intervention to the participating sector.
Rubric
Criterion
Planning
Poor (15 points)
Acceptable (20
Exemplary (30
points)
points)
There is little
There is a
There is
information
workable
comprehensive
gathered about
information
information
the partner
gathered about
gathered about
community.
the partner
the partner
community.
community.
Project
The project is
There are parts
All parts of the
feasibility
almost
of the project
project can be
impossible to
that cannot be
implemented.
implement.
implemented.
There is
There is
There is full
minimum
participation in
participation in
participation in
some group
all activities.
group work.
works.
The project
The project
The project is
implementation
implementation
fully organized
is disorganized.
has order only
and
in some parts.
implemented as
Participation
Implementation
Score
planned.
Total
Quarter Challenge
I. Match each item in column A, with an option each in columns B and
C.
Column A (Concept)
Column B (Definition)
Column C (Example)
Column A (Concept)
Column B (Definition)
Column C (Example)
1. Foraging
a. Standardized currency
i. Barter
2. Reciprocity
b. Residence in new locality
ii. Batak of Palawan
3. Redistribution
c. Animal domestication
iii. Nuclear family
4. Market exchange
d. Exchange of goods
iv. Intensive farming
5. Horticulture
e. Hunter and gatherer
v. Moslem
man
with
several wives
6. Agriculture
f. Tracing kin through male
vi. Tribute
relatives
7. Pastoralism
g. Multiple spouses
vii. Kaingin
8. Patrilineal
h. Transfer of resources
viii Mongolian hordes
.
9. Neolocal
i. Swidden farming
ix. Money
10. Polygamy
j. Domestication of plants
x. Chinese lineage
and animals
II. Answer each question in 300 words. Provide examples to strengthen
your arguments.
1. How can social change occur in a pluralistic society?
2. How do non-state institutions promote social justice?
3. Why is religion significant in promoting social order?
4. How does David Easton's model discuss the political process?
5. Why are social organizations crucial to the process of social
development?
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