Terms in The history of The English literature
Submitted by: Riyan A, Class no: 12
The Anglo-Saxons
Anglo-Saxons introduced their language of West-Germanic origin, known as Old English or the AngloSaxon language to Britain. The period from 410 AD to 1066 is known as the Anglo-Saxon period and
is identified as the origin of British literature. Another major event that happened in Britain during
this period was the conversion of the English into Christianity. St Augustine became the first
Archbishop of Canterbury in 597 and established the first English Church. From 1003 to 1013, Britain
was ruled by the Danes – a group of tribes who attacked England from Denmark and Norway. They
were known as the Vikings and were people of Scandinavia (Norway, Denmark and Sweden) and
were invading the countries around them. The Viking Invasion in Britain began around 790 AD and
lasted till the Norman Conquest. The period from around 500 BC till the Norman Conquest in 1066 is
known as the Old English Period.
Anglo-Saxon Poetry
The Old English poetry is marked by the extensive use of metaphors while similes are comparatively
lesser. Another prominent feature is the use of allegory as a primary poetic device Caesura is also a
recurrent device in Anglo-Saxon poetry. Heroic/ Epic poetry, Christian poetry, and Courtly Lyric
poetry are the mine categories.
Beowulf
The first extant poem and the best example of the Heroic/Epic poetry from the Old English period is
Beowulf. This epic poem was named thus, by historians after its protagonist. A single manuscript of
Beowulf survived the ravages of time and is considered the first extant poem in English. Beowulf is
anonymous in origin and consists of more than 3000 lines. Elements of German Pagan culture and
Christian beliefs are found in the poem. The poem gives an insight into the life during the times
when it was written.Beowulf narrates the story of a warrior Beowulf who is destined to become the
King of the Geats (a Swedish prominent tribe during those times). The verse narrates three major
trials that Beowulf had to undergo to demonstrate his fearless strength as a leader. Beowulf begins
with the battle between the protagonist and a monster named Grendel. This is followed by an attack
by Grendel’s mother who is also named Grendel. In his old age, again Beowulf wages a war against a
fire-breathing dragon. Beowulf perishes after killing the dragon. These three major events are used
to bring out the heroic elements in the life of Beowulf and to project him as a successful warrior and
leader.
Caedmon (658-680)
Caedmon is believed to be the first Christian poet. In his prose work, Ecclesiastical History, Bede
mentions Caedmon illiterate from the monastery who wrote religious verse after getting a vision in
sleep. The poem thus written is the “Song of Creation” after which Caedmon established himself not
only as a monk but also as a Christian poet of prominence. Only nine lines from Caedmons
alliterative verse remain from the “Song of Creation”.
Cynewulf (720-730)
He is famous for his religious compositions and is regarded as one of the pre-eminent figures of
Christian poetry in Old English, His poems include The Dream of the Rood, The Fates of the Apostles,
Juliana, Elene, and Christ. The Dream of the Rood is considered to be his masterpiece and narrates
conversion to Christianity and reflects the true spirit of Christian religious poetry of the Old English
period. The Christian poetry of the Anglo-Saxon period combined pagan elements with Christian
themes.
Anglo-Saxon Prose
The prose in the Old English period was not as developed as poetry. Prose flourished mostly due to
the contributions of Alfred the Great and The Venerable Bede and included mostly historical writings
and sermons or talks. The prose of this period achieved stylization and evolved in fluency towards
the end of the AngloSaxon period. Alliteration and rhetoric were prominent features of is he prose
during this period. Aelfric is another writer of prose from this period. His important works include
Homilies and The Lives of Saints, the latter being the first biographical writing in English.
Alfred the Great
Alfred the Great started writing prose first as translations from Latin. His important translations
include Pastoral Care of Pope Gregory, History of the World by Orosius, Bede’s Ecclesiastical History,
Boethius Consolation of Philosophy, and the Soliloquies of St Augustine. Alfred was the West Saxon
king from 871 to 899 and brought Britain as a single nation with his vision. Alfred commissioned
various translations of Latin works to facilitate the education of his people. Schools and monasteries
were set up and scholars from abroad were brought for the benefit of the common people. The
famous Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was begun to be written during his reign. It is an important landmark
of Old English prose. Moreover, it is a chief source-book of information about the Anglo Saxons. He
was the first to put the vernacular to systematic use. Alfred gave shape to proper English prose by
using the West Saxon dialect.
Venerable Bede
Venerable Bede/Saint Bede/Bede is believed to be an English monk at the companion monasteries
of Saint Peter’s and Saint Paul’s in Northeast England in the Kingdom of Northumbria. Bede is known
for his religious writing in Latin, which is believed to be translated by Alfred the Great. The most
important and extant prose writing of Bede is Ecclesiastical History of the English People. It is the
earliest work of British history. The book, as mentioned above, contains the reference to the AngloSaxon poet, Caedmon. The book was a chronicle of his times and rightly gained Bede the title of the
“father of English history”. This work is religious in nature and documents the evolution of
Christianity in Britain.
The Norman Conquest (1066)
and the Middle English Period The Middle English Period is a turbulent period in the history of
England. The Battle of Hastings in 1066 and the resultant Norman Conquest is a landmark in British
history The Norman conquest of England took place in 1066. This is a landmark in the history of the
English people. The Norman Conquest brought in many changes in Britain. Political unity was
brought in England. William brought in discipline through the Salisbury oath and the Doomsday
Book. The Norman connection of the rulers made Britain connected to other nations. The English
language became simpler in structure, spelling, and vocabulary due to the influence of Norman
French, English vocabulary got enriched due to foreign influence. Williams changed the
administrative capital from Winchester to London. This had a great influence on the standardization
of the English language from East-midland dialect. French influence in literature and society then
brought in a newer aristocratic society. This naturally resulted in a social and cultural fissure
between the privileged ruling class and the lower classes. On another level, the Norman Conquest
created a Britain that was confident and aggressive with a strong militaristic culture. Latin prose and
French poetry were widely read and influenced further writings. The conventions of courtly love and
Chivalry became widely used and romance became frivolous and highly imaginative. Like in the
Anglo-Saxon period, poetry flourished over prose. For better understanding, Middle English
Literature could be divided into two the period before Geoffrey Chaucer and the period after
Chaucer. The period before Chaucer did not have any major writers but was formative. Middle
English Poetry was influenced by French and Latin literature. Alliteration gave way to rhyme and
meter. The English language became more musical and flexible. Most of the Middle English poetry is
religious. The Arthurian legends became the ground of Layamon’s Brut (1200). Another important
poem written in the form of a debate is of anonymous origin and is titled “The Owl and the
Nightingale”. The poem is a representation of the courtly life of the time. The poetry of the period is
alliterative and lyrics became prominent. The poetic style was lucid and controlled and there was
great advancement from that of the Old English period. Middle English Prose was mostly religious
and didactic. The prose was visible through the translations. The most important were the Bible
translations into English. The late twelfth and thirteenth centuries saw the rise of Universities in
England. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge were the earliest in the modern sense of the
term to be founded in England. This had a lasting influence on the history of British literature. The
major changes that happened towards the end of the Middle English period include the transition of
literature from the oral form to the written one. The translations into English gave it the status of a
literary language even amid French and Latin prominence. The Chivalric writings at the beginning of
the Middle Ages saw a decline.
Geoffrey Chaucer
During this period of unrest, England saw the rise of “the great stream” of British Literature –
Geoffrey Chaucer. Chaucer (1338 1400) is believed to have been born in London. Chaucer gave an
identity and national character to British literature. His genius and national importance had been
recognized in all ages. Chaucer was the first poet to be buried in Westminister Abbey and the spot
has since been known as the Poet’s Corner. Chaucer’s writing had a cosmopolitan outlook with a
strong British character. His career is divided into three phases. The earliest French phase was
followed by a Latin phase. It was in the final English phase that Chaucer established a tradition for
British poets. Chaucer’s earliest work is believed to be the translation of a French romance – Roman
de la Rose. The important English poems of Chaucer include The Book of Duchess, Parliament of
Fowls, Troilus and Criseyde, House of Fame, Legend of Good Women, and The Canterbury Tates,
which is believed to be his masterpiece. A Treatise on the Astrolabe is an important prose work
written by Chaucer. Other than Chaucer, John Wycliffe and John Mendeville were the prose writers
of the fourteenth century. The Canterbury Tales with a beautiful “Prologue” is considered Chaucer to
be the milestone in the growth of British Literature. Chaucer’s merit as a writer vests with his variety
of themes, treatment, genres used, tone, and style. His excellence in providing minute details is best
visible in The Canterbury Tales, which remains a true document of the times. Chaucer has
contributed greatly to the English language by standardizing the East Midland dialect and helped in
establishing the English vernacular tradition. Chaucer was the first to use the blank verse in English.
He also invented the Rhyme Royal stanza pattern consisting of seven lines in iambic pentameter with
the rhyme scheme of ababbcc. Geoffrey Chaucer is known as the father of English literature.
Chaucer brought in a tradition of writing which was followed by many later writers, both in England
and Scotland.
William Langland
William Langland (1332-1400) was an important poet and contemporary of Chaucer. The Vision of
Williams Concerning Piers the Plowman by Langland is considered the greatest religious poem of
British Literature. Langland was a reformer, a poet of the people, and a pious Catholic. Piers the
Plowman narrates the suffering of a poor farmer in an allegorical manner to satirize the social and
ecclesiastical decay of the times. It is a work of reform and documents Britain of the fourteenth
century. The work has three versions. Despite its weak structure and argument, Piers the Plowman
remains an important work due to its extraordinary imaginative power and sublime expression.
John Gower
John Gower (1330-1408) is another prominent writer in the Age of Chaucer. He was a satirist and a
moralist. His three Important works are Vox Clamantis (in Latin), Speculum Meditantis (in French),
and ConfessioAmantis (in English). ConfessioAmantis is a long poem with straightforward narration.
Gower presents the seven deadly sins followed by anecdotes in his English masterpiece.
The Fall of Constantinople
One major turning point in World history is the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 under the attack of
the Ottoman Turks. The Ottoman empire took siege of the city of Constantinople and renamed it
Istanbul. Greek scholars fled the city with manuscripts that later, led to the dispersal of ancient
knowledge to various nations, including Britain. Thus, the Fall of Constantinople led to the spread of
the Italian Renaissance. Another major repercussion of the fall of the Roman empire was the
severing of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. This led to the intensification of explorations
and the discovery of the sea route to Asia.
War of the Roses (1455-1485)
In 1485, Henry Tudor defeated Richard III and ascended the throne as Henry VII. He married
Elizabeth of York and thus, united the rivals and became the first Tudor King. The War of the Roses is
named thus after the symbols used by the houses of York and Lan- Caster – White and Red roses.
The struggle for succession between these two houses led to the reign of the Tudor dynasty in
Britain. The period of Tudor rule strengthened the British authority. This was also the period of the
English renaissance
Fifteenth Century Literature The Fifteenth century is known as the barren age of British literature
because it lacked any tall figures in literature. Arts and literature suffered due to the numerous
uprisings and upsurge, especially the War of the Roses. Lack of patronage and sponsorship of the
feudal lords brought in a steady decline in literature. Though the fifteenth century was prominent
due to the absence of great writers, the period could be seen as a gestation period of the golden age
of British literature – the Elizabethan age
Ballads
In the fifteenth century, the literary genre of Ballad was revived. With the arrival of written
literature, oral literature had been sidelined for a century in Britain. The fifteenth century saw the
evolution of the Ballad into a polished and proper literary expression and the revival of the English
and Scottish popular ballads. The most important ballad from the period is the Ballad of Chevy Chase
– the oldest and first extant epical ballad from Britain. Part history and part fiction, the ballad is
about a border war between England and Scotland. The Wife of Usher’s Well is another popular
ballad of the period written in the form of the dream of a mother whose three sons die in a battle
between England and Scotland. The Nutbrown Maid is yet another ballad that was popular in the
fifteenth century. It narrates the love story of a dark lady and is noted for its brilliant dramatic
dialogue. Other ballads of prominence are Sir Patrick Spens, Robin Hood, Guy of Gisborne, Adam
Bell, Captain Car, and Sweet William’s Ghost, Ballad had a steady growth into a proper poetic genre
during this period. The technical growth was noted by the simple and unadorned style. The growth
of ballads in this period had a long-lasting influence on the evolution of British poetry.
Caxton and the Printing Press
William Caxton introduced printing in England in 1476, Printing was the greatest gift of the
Renaissance. The first printing press was established in 1453 in Germany by Gutenberg. Caxton was
a prose writer and translator and this influenced the growth of prose writing in England. Caxton’s
style was marked with clarity and ease. Caxton published more prose than poetry. From 1476 till his
death in 1491 Caxton published ninety-eight books. Caxton also contributed a lot to the
standardization of the English language first effected by Chaucer. The printing press also promoted
education in England. Caxton was a great admirer of Chaucer and printed. In England, the press
helped in promoting Renaissance and Reformation in the sixteenth century and also in building a
strong sense of Nationalism
Renaissance, Reformation, and Humanism
The sixteenth century England underwent a massive change under the influence of an intellectual
and artistic movement that changed the whole world – the European Renaissance. Renaissance
flourished with the Fall of Constantinople and the advent of the printing press. It began in Italy in the
fourteenth century and means “rebirth”. It upturned the authority of religion and believed in the
spiritual and intellectual development of the individual human. Renaissance rejected Medieval
thought and concentrated on human beings, beauty, freedom, and truth. This offshoot of
Renaissance with its significant new attitude towards literature, art, education, and life was called
“Humanism” or “New Learning. Humanism asserted the merit of the individual. It rejected the
concept of man as a manifestation of God. In religion, Humanism worked towards the liberation of
the individual, secular learning, and popularizing the Bible, Mass translations of the Bible into the
vernacular were engaged with. The primary of this was to enable the common man to read the Bible
without the help of scholars. Humanism, thus, helped in the democratization of the Bible.
Renaissance questioned many age-old theories and people were on the brink of a new and modern
age. Art and architecture flourished along with a revolution in science. In literature, the Influence of
Greek and Latin resulted in the translating of classics and the adaptation of classical literary genres
and conventions Newer literature flourished with the beauty and strength of the human body as the
central concerns. The best examples of this approach are found in the works of Leonardo da Vinci,
Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, and Botticelli. The theories of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler
changed the way human beings perceive the world. The concept of Earth as the centre of a universe
perished, thereby paving the way for new perspectives. An unquenchable quest prevailed, leading to
the inevitable questioning of various religious beliefs. Thus, the Renaissance gave birth to the
Reformation. Renaissance and Reformation, together, heralded a new age with European explorers
and missionaries moving across the globe. The geographical discoveries of the Renaissance changed
the whole world. Reformation as a movement has its roots in the rebellion of Martin Luther, a
German theologian. Martin Luther questioned the corrupt practices of the Church and the Pope and
pasted a charge sheet against the Pope on the wall of the Church in Wittenberg. This resulted in his
excommunication by the Pope. The rulers in Germany supported Martin Luther against the tyranny
of the Pope. Thus, Reformation as a movement sprung up and divided into two groups –
Protestantism and Calvinism. Protestantism raised a voice against the authority of the Pope while
Calvinism put forward a rigid type of Christianity with strict rules and regulations. In England, under
the rule of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII, Renaissance flourished. The rediscovery of the Classics
greatly influenced England and the New Learning/Humanism reached its zenith under the rule of
Henry VIII. Erasmus, More, Colet, and Fisher were the scholars who kindled the New Learning in
England. Humanism chiefly influenced English prose through Latin translations. The Latin models
helped English prose to achieve order and precision. Another major influence of the order literature
was in Theatre. Latin theatre made a huge impact On the growth of British theatre. Terence, Plautus,
and Seneca were the playwrights who led to the shaping of the British Theatre during the
Elizabethan age. British poetry flourished primarily under the influence of Petrarch and Aristotle.
Reformation in Britain flourished under the influence of the Renaissance and went hand in hand
under the rule of Henry VIII. The Protestant religion that was born out of the British Reformation
later became Puritanism – the religion of the new middle classes. Puritanism put forward intense
preoccupation with the spiritual needs of the individual. This was against the basic premise of the
Renaissance of liberating religion from theology.
Prose in the Age of British Renaissance
As mentioned earlier, Caxton’s printing press stimulated the growth of prose – both writing and
publishing. There was a spree of English translations of prose from other languages into English,
though those were of little merit. The major prose writers include Lord Berners, a prominent
translator of the period. The famous British Humanist Thomas Linacre was also a great translator. He
also constituted a gathering at Oxford to promote Classical languages and literature by organizing
constant lectures. This inspired John Colet and Thomas More to produce prose in support of
Humanism. John Colet’s prose is manifestation of his theological and humanist positions. The Dutch
scholar Desiderius Erasmus is the best-known prose writer from the category of the Humanists.
Another milestone was the production of an English Bible. The translation of the Bible and the Book
of Common Prayer were two chief literary products of the Reformation. Inspired by the translations
of Wycliffe, Tyndale translated Bible but the published version was destroyed by the men of Henry
VIII. Tyndale’s prose style was rhythmic but lacked the beauty of expression. Tyndale’s translation is
one of the most important Bible translations. He relied upon the Hebrew and Greek originals. Miles
Coverdale carried Tyndale’s work ahead but did not match up to his scholarship. Coverdale’s merit
lies in his construction of brilliant phrases and rhythm, John Rogers, in 1537, prepared a version of
the Bible based upon the translations of Tyndale and Coverdale. Thomas Crammer wrote the preface
to this version and was licensed by Henry VIII.
Thomas More (1478 – 1535)
He was a lawyer by profession. More is one of the earliest British Humanists and a prose writer of
great significance. He is known as the first writer of the middle style. More was influenced by the
Humanist scholar Erasmus and this resulted in his Utopia. Utopia is a testament to More’s
Humanistic perspectives. Utopia was originally written in Latin and later translated to English by
Ralph Robinson in 1551. More criticizes British society, government, and economy in his Utopia. This
prose work is known as “the masterpiece of English Humanism” and “the true Prologue to the
Renaissance”. Thomas More communicated the ethos of Renaissance -a spirit for adventure and
revival for Classical learning in Utopia.
The Origin and Development of Native British Drama
The origin of British drama could be traced to religious rituals, like the theatre. The drama began as
a means of communicating the central doctrine of the Church among the masses. Initially, it was the
clergymen who performed in the Church during Easter. Over some time, stories from the Old and
New Testaments, and the lives of the Saints were performed elaborately and dramatically. The plays,
gradually, moved to the Churchyard and then to the Meadows. Later Guildsmen took the plays onto
the streets and other public places. This mobility of the place of performance was accompanied by
the mobility of the themes to more secular ones. This was the result of the revival of the Corpus
Christi festival in 1311 which provided a public holiday for the dramatic representations of Biblical
history. This was coupled with the growing importance of fairs and the increase in wealth of the
trading community that enabled the propulsion of Drama into a popular art form
The Miracle Plays
The plays performed during the Corpus Christi festival were Biblical in nature and were based on the
scriptures or the life and martyrdom of a saint. These came to be known as the Miracle Plays and
had developed from the earliest performances inside the Church. The Miracle plays expanded the
subject matter and included Comic scenes. These had little literary merit. The verse was crude but
the dialogues were mostly witty. The Miracle plays formed a great national tradition in using English
instead of Latin.
The Morality Plays
Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Miracle plays gave way to Morality Plays in which the
characters were personifications of virtues and vices. The Morality plays carry the legacy of religious
performance ahead and are the result of the attempts to teach Christian values to the masses.
Morality plays were allegorical. The importance of Morality plays lies in the development of a
definite plot These plays were also written in crude verse form like its predecessor. The earliest
mention of morality is that of the Play of the Paternoster while the oldest extant Morality play is The
Castle of Perseverance. Everyman is considered to be the best Morality play
The Interludes
Across the evolution of British drama, interludes could be seen as the last connecting link between
Medieval plays and the Elizabethan theatre. Interludes were performed either in the middle or at
the beginning of bigger entertainments. In the interludes, the didactic nature of the Medieval plays
gave way to comic representations. John Heywood’s The Four P’s is an interlude that replaced
Biblical allegory with performances rich in wit and humour