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Nurliana Kamaruddin · Aida Idris ·
Kevin Fernandez
Editors
The New Normal
and Its Impact
on Society
Perspectives from ASEAN and the European Union
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CHAPTER 1
The New Normal: Challenges and Regional
Approaches
Kevin Fernandez and Nurliana Kamaruddin
Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic has inexplicably altered global
society, raising concerns about shifts in social, economic, and political
patterns in the so-called “new normal”. The emergence of new challenges
has placed pressure on all facets of human society, hindering a return
to “business as usual”. Given the transnational nature of many of these
challenges, regional cooperation has naturally gained significance. This
chapter offers a brief glimpse into the study of regionalism, along with
the cooperation between ASEAN and the European Union. Additionally,
it presents an overview of the chapters featured in the book.
Keywords New normal · Social challenges · ASEAN · European
Union · Regionalism · Regional cooperation
K. Fernandez · N. Kamaruddin (B)
Asia-Europe Institute, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
e-mail: nurliana.k@um.edu.my
K. Fernandez
e-mail: kevin@um.edu.my
1
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2
K. FERNANDEZ AND N. KAMARUDDIN
Introduction
Without a doubt, the COVID-19 pandemic has inexplicably changed the
global society. In recent years, governments worldwide have focused on
issues of health management, vaccination, and the subsequent economic
impact. Amidst these discussions, the impact that the pandemic and the
prolonged lockdowns have had on societies beyond the issue of economic
hardship has also gained traction. There is no denying that there is
growing concern about changing social, economic, and political patterns
in the so-called “new normal”. New challenges are putting pressure on all
aspects of human society which prevents us from returning to “business
as usual”.
What is clear is that the current generation is facing challenges that
their older peers did not know, and new feelings and concerns are coming
to the fore. The sense of economic scarcity, irrevocable damage from
climate change, and geopolitical survival have led to a new sense of
speed in dealing with new demands and expectations. Be it from the
changing work trends to new forms of security concern, these challenges
are testing the readiness and resilience of the global society. Moreover,
these challenges seem to require solutions beyond that of local and
national governments. Considering the cross-border impact that many
of these challenges pose, it seems natural that regional cooperation has
increased in importance.
Regional Approaches to New Challenges
Theoretical discussions of regionalism have taken place in two waves, the
first in the late 1950s from the standpoint of a subfield of International
Relations and the second in the 1980s from the standpoint of International Political Economy (IPE) (Breslin et al., 2002). Early arguments
on regional integration, led by neo-functionalists, focused too much on
the achievements of regional integration in Europe or the lack of integration in other regions of the world (Haas & Schmitter, 1964; Nye, 1970).
However, this approach by the neo-functionalists was also criticized which
led to the debate about whether regionalism was a study in its own right
or whether it should be a study of interdependence (Breslin & Higgott,
2000).
The publication of the White Paper on the Single Market in 1985
and the adoption of the Single European Act in the same year brought
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1
THE NEW NORMAL: CHALLENGES AND REGIONAL …
3
about discussions concerning “New Regionalism”. This discussion led to
the revival of regional initiatives such as the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) in the United States of America (USA), the creation
of MERCUSOR in 1991, the development of ASEAN in Asia in the
1990s, and the start of APEC in 1989 (Breslin et al., 2002). The most
notable effort in this area was the European Union’s Single Market Initiative. In the 1990s, it succeeded in achieving an unprecedented degree of
monetary integration among most member countries.
Bjoern Hettne (2002) later emphasizes the importance of understanding regionalism from both an exogenous perspective (regionalization
and globalization are interrelated articulations of global change) and an
endogenous perspective (according to which regionalization is shaped by
a variety of different actors within the region). Börzel and Risse also argue
that it is the “functional factors” that drive regional interdependence.
Additionally, the capacity and role of the political elites in encouraging
regional engagement which can draw support that the grassroots level
also matters in how successful a regional organization can be (2019).
How and why regional organizations form aside, what is clear is that
regional approaches have become increasingly important in addressing
new security and social concerns especially as there are increasing overlaps
between these two fields. To that end, this book provides a comparative look at how ASEAN and the EU have approached selected issues.
As arguably the two most comprehensive regional organizations examining how the EU-style regional integration versus what is characterized
as loose and informal in Asia provides an important basis for comparison between models of regional integration (Söderbaum, 2013). More
importantly, considering the differences in these two regional organizations when it comes to the level of integration and available mechanisms
for cooperation, the EU and ASEAN approaches would allow readers to
identify parallels, trends, and draw lessons from both regions.
ASEAN and the European Union (EU)
Beyond the importance of examining ASEAN and the EU in their own
right, it is also worth noting the long historical dimension of the two
regions’ relationship. With the exception of Thailand, all ASEAN countries have been colonized by at least one EU country. This contributed
to long-standing relations between many of the ASEAN countries with
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K. FERNANDEZ AND N. KAMARUDDIN
EU member countries which continues to benefit economic and social
ties between the two regions.
ASEAN continues to consider the EU as a crucial trading partner.
Based on ASEAN’s report, the total value of bilateral trade between
ASEAN and the EU reached $268.9 billion in 2021 (ASEAN Secretariat, 2022a). This represents an 18.6 percent increase compared to
the previous year’s total of $200.1 billion. In terms of foreign direct
investment (FDI), the EU provided ASEAN with $26.5 billion in 2021,
marking a significant 42.9 percent year-on-year increase and positioning
the EU as the second-largest source of external FDI among all ASEAN
dialogue partners that year (ASEAN Secretariat, 2022a).
In 2022, the trade value between the EU and ASEAN exceeded 271.8
billion euros (European Union, 2023). This establishes ASEAN as the
EU’s third-largest trading partner outside of Europe, ranking after China
and the United States. Additionally, bilateral trade in services between the
EU and ASEAN amounted to e82.4 billion in 2020. The EU primarily
exports machinery, chemical products, and transportation equipment to
ASEAN, while agricultural products, industrial and transportation equipment, and other industrial products constitute the majority of imports
from ASEAN to the European Union (European Union, 2023).
EU cooperation with ASEAN countries goes beyond being just a
trading partner; it is also a mutually beneficial partnership, as demonstrated at the height of the pandemic in efforts to combat the global
spread of COVID-19. Under “Team Europe”, the EU provided e820
million in aid to mitigate the impact of the disease in the ASEAN region,
and another e20 million for the World Health Organization’s pandemic
response and preparedness in Southeast Asia (ASEAN Secretariat, 2022a).
According to statistics, in 2015, there were about 371 thousand people
who held citizenship of an ASEAN country and were long-term residents
of the EU-28. This represented approximately 4.8 percent of the total
number of people who held citizenship of a non-EU country and were
long-term residents of the EU-28 (Corselo, 2017). It is estimated that
76.4 thousand people from EU member states live in ASEAN member
states. This represents 0.8 percent of all foreign-born residents in ASEAN
and 2.6 percent of residents born outside ASEAN (Corselo, 2017).
Protection for these individuals from both sides of the spectrum is critical.
The two multilateral organizations have a long history of close cooperation, with the EU playing more of a big brother role in helping ASEAN
become a full-fledged multilateral organization. One example of such
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THE NEW NORMAL: CHALLENGES AND REGIONAL …
5
cooperation is in the area of human rights. Human rights have been a
problematic issue in relations between ASEAN and the EU since the early
1990s, especially in the context of the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM),
which has played an important role in the gradual formation of ASEAN’s
common identity as a regional space for communication on human rights
(Manea, 2008). An important difference between ASEAN and the EU is
that ASEAN, as a global organization, acts bilaterally, while both think
multilaterally, according to Amitav Acharya (1998, p. 67). This hampers
ASEAN as a multilateral organization as it lacks cooperation and coordination to make unilateral decisions on various issues affecting the region,
including the changing culture affecting labour, cybersecurity, education,
and especially irregular migration.
As part of the European Union’s support for higher education in the
ASEAN region (SHARE), the EU funds several programs to promote
gender equality and women’s empowerment, protect migrant workers,
and enhance the quality of education through scholarships. Additionally,
the European Union has provided assistance in various fields through the
Regional EU-ASEAN Dialogue Instrument (READI) facility, which has
been operational since September 2011 and will continue until September
2017. These fields encompass education, science and technology, environmental management, and disaster management (ASEAN Secretariat,
2022).
An example of how the EU has helped to create a centre for disaster
management is the establishment of the ASEAN Coordination Center for
Humanitarian Assistance (AHA) in 2011 and the ASEAN Agreement on
Disaster Management and Emergency Response (AADMER or the Agreement) in 2015 are two examples of how ASEAN is working to develop
systems similar to those of the EU (Pennisi di Floristella, 2015). The
ASEAN Center for Humanitarian Assistance (AHA), working through
the Myanmar Red Cross Society (MRCS), has been instrumental in coordinating relief efforts in Myanmar, particularly in transporting medical
supplies and equipment to directly assist COVID-19 (Arca, 2021).
With the continued sporadic and harsh lockdowns that countries had
to adopt, socioeconomic structures based on non-pandemic measures
were severely disrupted, affecting all strata of society, particularly formal
and informal lower and middle-income earners. According to a study by
the Asian Development Bank Institute, Cambodia and Lao PDR had the
lowest percentage of families in which at least one member lost their job
or had their working hours reduced during the height of the pandemic
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K. FERNANDEZ AND N. KAMARUDDIN
(Morgan & Trinh, 2021). In contrast, more than 70 percent of all families in the Philippines had at least one member who was laid off or had to
work fewer hours due to the global economic crisis. Additionally, a relatively high number of people in the Philippines experienced temporary
or permanent job layoffs (22.5 percent and 28.5 percent, respectively)
(Morgan & Trinh, 2021). The pandemic accelerated the introduction and
widespread adoption of the concept of working from home.
The pandemic highlighted the importance of ensuring equal access
to education and employment opportunities for all. The closures had a
disproportionately negative impact on marginalized groups, such as lowincome people and people of colour, who may have limited access to the
technology and resources needed for online learning and remote work.
These groups were disproportionately negatively impacted by the closures
(Hoehn-Velasco et al., 2021). As we move into the future, it is imperative
to ensure that all people, regardless of their background or circumstances,
have equal access to the labour market and educational opportunities.
The effects of the COVID-19 issue were seen in the context of
the EU as the percentage of people working from home more than
doubled in 2020, reaching 12.3 percent, and there was a further rise
in the percentage of people typically working from home in 2021, as it
reached 13.5 percent (Eurostat, 2022). The Swedish capital Stockholm,
for example, saw a dramatic increase in 2021, with two out of five workers
(or 40.5%) working from home. Many companies that had previously
resisted working from home were forced to adopt it during the pandemic,
and many have since discovered the benefits of working from home, such
as higher productivity and lower overhead costs (Chakraborty & Kar,
2021).
The Organization of the Book
With this background in mind, this book explores some of the challenges
that have intensified due to, and after, the pandemic. In Chapter 2, Wan
Zokhri Wan Idris makes the provocative claim that we are living in a “lost
generation” today, drawing on the five pillars of child well-being developed by UNICEF. These five pillars are (1) survival and thriving, (2)
learning, (3) protection, (4) a healthy environment, and (5) equal opportunity. Wan Idris supports his claim that the current generation is a “lost
generation” by pointing to these five pillars as evidence. He attempts to
argue that the experiences of children and youth during the World War
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THE NEW NORMAL: CHALLENGES AND REGIONAL …
7
and COVID-19 may be similar because the “lost generation” is essentially
an “unfulfilled generation coming of age in a time of instability”. This is
done through a thorough analysis and synthesis of the UNICEF report
produced in 2021 and 2022.
Niresh Kaur attempts to sketch the post-pandemic changes in employment patterns for both regions in Chapter 3, with a silver lining in terms
of new directions and opportunities to explore. This chapter focuses on
the positive aspects of the situation, such as the acceleration of digitization
as a result of pressure on companies to embrace new technologies to facilitate remote work and online services. The structure of labour markets in
many countries is expected to change further with the spread of flexible
forms of work such as freelancing, part-time contracts, and gig-economy
occupations. Kaur further delves into the reconfiguration of global supply
chains due to remote work arrangements.
In the context of increasing digitalization in almost every industry,
this also means that virtually all aspects of human life now take place
somehow or rather in cyberspace. A report by the United Nations Office
on Drugs and Crime (2021) highlighted during the height of COVID19 that there was no consistent data collection or reporting of cybercrime
(particularly child sexual abuse and exploitation) in Southeast Asia and
that online child sexual exploitation increased during the pandemic in
the region. Lack of regulations and means of enforcement due to the
nature of the internet meant that there is an increased vulnerability to
cyber-based crimes and scams, particularly among the youth and elderly.
Governments and private organizations alike are focused on enhancing
their cybersecurity capacity but there is less focus on individual experience
and preparedness. In Chapter 4, Razwan Mokhtar and Amran Rohaizat
note that one reason cybercriminals successfully perpetrate scams during
pandemics is that victims in this situation are more vulnerable to fraud due
to heightened emotional states such as stress, depression, and anxiety. The
overall chapter gives us a comprehensive overview of the different types
of cybercrime and the various regional initiatives, as well as some recommendations for regional cooperation that ASEAN and the EU could
adopt.
The ASEAN Migration Outlook (2002b) highlighted how migrants
were more vulnerable to the impacts of COVID-19, in part because of
the nature of their work and living conditions, and that this group of
people also has less access to personal protective equipment and testing
and treatment facilities, particularly undocumented migrants. Meanwhile,
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K. FERNANDEZ AND N. KAMARUDDIN
tighter immigration rules in many countries have led to changes in migration and mobility patterns during the pandemic period. Even as countries
begin to reopen their borders, local policies towards migrant workers,
refugees, and other communities in the periphery have also changed in
recent years. Migration triggered by poverty and conflict has become
even more dangerous, exacerbated by the lack of medical care and welfare
in these displaced communities. The fifth chapter by Nadia Kalinina and
Kevin Fernandez offers an analysis of historical events that have influenced
EU and ASEAN migration policies in the contemporary period. They
recommend ASEAN to be more assertive in dealing with Myanmar and
call out the EU of its dualism for being lenient in dealing with Ukrainian
refugees and not so lenient in dealing with refugees from war-torn Muslim
Arab states and Africa.
According to the World Bank (2023), 70 million more people have
been pushed back into extreme poverty, meaning millions of children face
cuts in health care (vaccines, etc.); globally, 34 percent of pre-schoolers
early language and literacy skills and more than 29 percent of math skills
have been lost; school closures and ineffective distance learning have
resulted in students missing out on learning and also forgetting what they
have learned: for every 30 days that schools have been closed, students
have missed an average of about 32 days of school; 40 million people who
would have had jobs by the end of 2021 but did not get them because of
the epidemic have exacerbated the trend towards youth unemployment.
25 percent of all young people in several countries were not in school,
work or training in 2021.
This group of people will account for 90 percent of human capital in
2050. In the sixth chapter, Mark Salvador Ysla and Jan Vincent Galas
look at the issue of human capital development concerns in both regions.
It first discusses the EU and ASEAN policy frameworks for addressing
the disruptions caused by the pandemic. This is followed by the various
strategies adopted by individual governments to further improve human
capital development. The final chapter by Stella Franciska Imanuella and
Aida Idris provides the conclusion of the book, looking at some of the
lessons that can be drawn from the chapters.
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THE NEW NORMAL: CHALLENGES AND REGIONAL …
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