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CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Volunteer Involvement
Abstract This chapter describes modern volunteer involvement as a complex and changing activity, explaining how key terms are defined and how
they are understood differently by a range of stakeholders. It offers the
latest data on where volunteer involvement happens in England, who
organises it and who is involved, summarising volunteers’ sociodemographic characteristics. The chapter then outlines the distinction between
volunteer involvement and general engagement with voluntary, community and social business organisations, discusses the spectrum of transactional and participatory approaches and offers international and inclusion
perspectives on introducing volunteer involvement.
Keywords Definitions, Characteristics, Typologies, Organisational
forms, International perspective, Inclusion perspective
Volunteer involvement and higher education are strikingly similar in many
ways. For example, they are fundamentally reliant on an individual’s choice
rather than being compulsory. They also continuously respond to societal
change. In the UK, higher education like volunteer involvement is still
associated with socio economic privilege, less often addressing equity and
power in compelling ways. Both higher education and volunteer
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2023
J. Grotz, Volunteer Involvement in UK Universities, Rethinking
University-Community Policy Connections,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45058-7_1
1
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J. GROTZ
involvement seem increasingly commodified, noticeably increasing their
use of managerial terms and practices. The collegial nature of academia,
even if lately more limited, shares features with volunteer involvement in
mutual aid and volunteer involvement in professional associations.
Academic collegiality relies heavily on activities that are not directly remunerated, are voluntary and are to make a direct difference, with an unwritten expectation of some reciprocity, such as peer reviewing papers and
acting as examiners of students or assessors and reviewers of research proposals. Finally, and sadly often overlooked, like the need for science to be
free of interference, volunteer involvement needs independence. The
strength of volunteer involvement in the UK has been contrasted with
totalitarian oppression elsewhere and described as a ‘distinguishing mark
of a free society’.
In a totalitarian society all action outside the citizen’s home, and it might be
much more that goes on there, is directed or controlled by the State. By contrast,
vigour and abundance of Voluntary Action outside one’s home, individually
and in association with other citizens, for bettering one’s own life and that of
one’s fellows are the distinguishing marks of a free society. They have been outstanding features of British life.
(Beveridge 1948, p. 10)
With such similarities, it is unsurprising that the two—universities and
volunteer involvement—have been intertwined for centuries. Universities
are closely linked to their local communities through a rich net of social
connections, both planned and unplanned, that include a wide range of
volunteer involvement, for example, through students and staff who volunteer in the communities of which they are part, in which they work and
live and also through local residents who become involved as volunteers
within the university. This can include students and staff of universities
going out as volunteers into communities, becoming involved in health
and social care or art and leisure, or it can be members of communities
coming into the university as volunteers, not just as alumni but also as
‘Experts by Experience’ supporting teaching or as ‘Patient and Public
Involvement’ representatives in research. Students also volunteer to support the university and activities of other students, often through societies.
Academics still volunteer for each other, and for institutions including
commercial ones, as well as collaborating in a range of collegial activities
sharing knowledge and offering their skills pro bono.
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INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT
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However, volunteer involvement in universities, while ubiquitous,
appears remarkably limited and very poorly understood in comparison with
volunteer involvement in other sectors. There seems to be an almost total
absence of common measurements of the impact such involvement has,
and what influences any such impact and how. Volunteer involvement does
not seem to be viewed as a ‘substantive policy or management issue’
whether in the context of university-community relations or otherwise. As
they are enacting volunteer involvement, universities appear to have been
severely remiss in understanding what Beveridge also called for in the
domestic sphere, that is, to reconcile the responsibilities of institutions with
the responsibilities and rights of the individual (Beveridge 1948, p. 10).
Before moving on to describe volunteer involvement in universities, however, it is necessary to clarify what ‘volunteer involvement’ entails, which
means addressing the basic questions of ‘What is a volunteer?’, ‘What is
involvement?’, ‘Where does volunteer involvement take place?’ ‘How is it
organised and by whom?’, ‘Who becomes involved as volunteers and why?’.
1.1 What Is Volunteer Involvement?
There is a great deal of confusion about terminology and definitions with
regard to volunteer involvement. The term ‘volunteering’ is often
employed as a catch all, both as a verb and a noun. Alternatives such as
‘voluntary action’ or ‘social action’ are also common. The starting position for ordering and explaining the various meanings of terms in this
book is that ‘volunteering’ is not simply an activity but that it is based on
relationships and on being involved. At the very basic level, one individual
becomes involved either with another or many or with a cause. This book
consistently uses ‘volunteer involvement’ instead of the term ‘volunteering’. This is to capture the multiple levels of those relationships, from
becoming and acting as a volunteer, and to understanding the meanings
of the verb to volunteer, through to organising opportunities for volunteer involvement and seeking societal impact.
Volunteers, first and foremost, find or create their own opportunities to
volunteer and ascribe their own reasons for becoming involved. But they
may also be assisted in becoming involved. Volunteer involving organisations seek to undertake activities for which they create associated opportunities and find volunteers to become involved in them. Their reasons
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J. GROTZ
might align or differ from those of the volunteers they become involved
with. And, of course, there are instances when volunteers and volunteer
involving organisations develop new volunteer involvement opportunities
together. In addition, volunteer involving infrastructure organisations
seek to help with these various processes. ‘Volunteer involvement’ encapsulates all those aspects, and the book distinguishes between becoming
involved as a volunteer, organising volunteer involvement opportunities,
seeking impact through volunteer involvement, the associated reasons
behind it, etc., rather than conflating them into a single term. Accepting
that the term and associated concepts will remain contentious and open to
other interpretations, this book refers to ‘volunteer involvement’ as the
relationships of individual actors in self-determined activities that match
the definition provided below. This means that involved volunteers are
more than unquestioning philanthropists giving time, delivering services
under direction or recipients of university handouts. Volunteers have
agency, and physical, psychological and communication access to all relevant aspects of the activities they take part in.
1.1.1 What Is a Volunteer?
The most common conceptualisation, in English, in the UK, has remained
largely unchallenged for more than two decades, expressed in the verb
‘volunteering’, referring to activities with three key characteristics of being
uncoerced, unpaid and making a difference. Those three components are
demonstrably expressed in the ‘Volunteering Code of Good Practice’
2007, which drew on the UK Volunteering Forum’s 1998 definition:
Volunteering is an activity that involves the “commitment of time and energy
for the benefit of society and the community and can take many forms. It is
undertaken freely and by choice, without concern for financial gain”.
(Quoted in Kearney 2001/2007, p. 4)
Similar definitions have also been used widely in academic literature
since the end of the last millennium (Cnaan et al. 1996; Wilson 2000;
Hustinx et al. 2010; Smith et al. 2016). However, how these principles are
applied depends heavily on context, geography and ideology. For example, the UK Home Office (2021), with powers on immigration, which are
not devolved to the nations of the UK, in May 2021 advised staff as
follows:
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Volunteers are those who give their time for free to charitable or public sector
organisations without any contractual obligation or entitlement. They are not
employees or workers as defined by various statutory provisions. (p. 18)
This definition applies UK-wide and transparently focuses on offering
time for charitable purposes or the public sector and seeks to establish a
clear distinction between an unpaid and paid workforce. It might therefore be generally unhelpful to refer to volunteer involvement as work or
voluntary work, as is still quite common even in the relevant literature—
see, for example, Jackson et al. (2019)—and hence it is unsurprising that
it is taken up by some universities, albeit not necessarily consistently, for
example, in the Newcastle University (2023) promotion of volunteer
involvement for students: “Voluntary work can be flexible to fit around your
commitments”. Some universities describe differences between the two.
The Arts University Bournemouth (2023), for example, has a volunteer
agreement which sets out a distinction between ‘volunteering’ and ‘voluntary work’, linking its advice to information provided by the government
on calculating the minimum wage.
Yet, it is essential to recognise that most relevant guidance does not
apply to the entire UK as many policy areas relating to volunteer involvement are non-reserved powers, and volunteer involvement is interpreted
differently in the four nations of the UK (Hardill et al. 2022).
In the context of higher education, the National Co-ordinating Centre
for Public Engagement for instance quotes the following difference for
volunteer involvement of students in Scotland and England, respectively:
A student who gives time to provide service to others in either the academic community (eg Nightline, Welfare Volunteers) or the local community (eg Student
Community Action, RAG). This does not include student volunteers such as
clubs and societies, student representatives and Freshers’ Week Helpers.
(Reilly and Odds 2003, p. 14)
Students who volunteer in their time in their local communities through programmes organised at/by their students’ union or institution.
(Student Volunteering England 2004, p. 14)
How such principles are applied then still varies from institution to
institution. See this example from the University of Exeter:
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Volunteering at the University of Exeter encompasses the efforts of all those who
engage in extra-curricular activities for the benefit of others… volunteers who
engage with the community…but also those who benefit the student community
such as the Campus Media, Telephone Helpline and Listening Service and the
efforts of RAG volunteers for raising more for local charities (Case Study RV2,
2004: CRAC).
(Student Volunteering England 2004, p. 15)
The University of Essex (2023) adopted a definition with fewer qualifications and a focus on individual agency while still including the term
‘benefit’ which is potentially contentious as it leaves open the question of
how benefit is contextualised:
Volunteering is any activity that involves spending time doing something
unpaid that benefits individuals (other than close family members), groups, the
environment and the community. Central to this definition is the fact that
volunteering must be a choice freely made by each individual.
In addition to the various interpretations of any key principles, it is
important to recognise that available definitions in English do not accurately recognise the multiple and varying characteristics and culturally
encoded concepts associated with volunteer involvement captured in the
UK, where over 200 languages are spoken, and where ideologies and individual backgrounds also affect understandings of the concept. In English,
the concepts associated with the verb ‘to volunteer’ are further complicated by its connotation of ‘offering to do something’, even if not associated with being unpaid but instead with paid work, military service or
used even when choice is altogether or mostly absent, as when accepting
‘voluntary’ redundancy.
With principles and definitions contentious, this book uses the definition of Grotz and Leonard (2022) for the verb ‘volunteering’ as “an individual’s activity undertaken by choice, without concern for financial gain
and intended to make a difference outside one’s family” (p. 4). This definition has a focus on individuals’ agency, and while drawing on the popular
characterisations of volunteer involvement, it is sharply reduced to three
components: ‘choice’, ‘unpaid’ and ‘making a difference’, removing any
ideological and technical additions such as ‘providing service’, the need
for a ‘commitment’, being of ‘benefit’ or ‘taking place in charitable
organisations’.
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1.1.2 What Is Involvement?
Before considering what ‘involvement’ is to mean in the context of this
book, as volunteer involvement in universities, it is necessary to disentangle the term from others often used interchangeably within universities,
notably ‘engagement’ and ‘participation’. Grotz et al. (2020) discuss this
confusion and refer, for example, to guidance by the NHS.
Participation (sometimes referred to as engagement or involvement) can take
place in a variety of ways, for example through social media, voluntary community and social enterprise (VCSE) organisations, elected representatives,
formal consultations and meetings.
(NHS England 2017, p. 6)
The National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement (NCCPE)
has chosen to define public engagement as below, and Research Councils
UK reports substantive investment for this type of ‘engagement’ in
research (Owen et al. 2016):
Public engagement describes the myriad of ways in which the activity and benefits of higher education and research can be shared with the public. Engagement
is by definition a two-way process, involving interaction and listening, with the
goal of generating mutual benefit.
(National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement 2023)
The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) used the
following very wide definition of Patient and Public Involvement in
research:
research being carried out ‘with’ or ‘by’ members of the public rather than ‘to’,
‘about’ or ‘for’ them
(NIHR INVOLVE 2012, p. 6)
In this book, the term ‘engagement’ is used to describe acting solely as
a giver, whether it is by providing information or through any other form
of handouts. It is not involvement. Similarly, ‘participation’ as ‘using’ the
time and contribution of public volunteers without a clear commitment to
acting on it and to forming a relationship, is not seen as involvement. It is
important to note the term ‘using’ in the previous sentence. Any observations that speak of ‘using’ volunteers should be questioned as to intent. In
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J. GROTZ
this book, other than here to illustrate the point about the connotation of
the word, ‘use’ will be strictly avoided in the context of and in direct combination with ‘volunteer’ or ‘volunteer involvement’.
Involvement in this book describes enabling activities. Involvement is
about an individual having agency in the decision to become involved and
how. Involvement is about how individuals and organisations enable more
individuals and organisations, ensuring that everyone is part of developing and understanding the activity, rather than just delivering it, and that
it is undertaken with, rather than only by those who become involved as
volunteers.
1.2 Where Does Volunteer Involvement Take
Place, What Forms Are There and Who Promotes It?
Volunteer involvement takes place in all parts of society, from before the
cradle, in support of sexual health, to the grave by looking after cemeteries; from the holy in faith communities to the unholy in prisons and the
groups that pursue self-declared unholy purposes. To gauge the level of
volunteer involvement in different areas in England amongst the over 16s,
the annual Community Life Survey (CLS), commissioned by the
Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (2021) recognises a
wide, albeit not comprehensive, range of organisational settings and also
that volunteer involvement can take place without an organisation. The
categories used in the CLS are similar to categories that have also been
used since the early 2000s (see also Dingle 2001; Low et al. 2007) and
show how volunteer involvement is seen to reach into all parts of society:
Children and youth;
Community activity;
Community peacekeeping;
Culture and recreation;
Data collection;
Economic justice;
Education;
Emergency response;
Environment;
Health care;
Law and legal services;
Personal assistance;
Promotion of commerce;
Promotion of knowledge;
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Human rights, advocacy and politics;
Religious volunteering;
Social assistance.
In the CLS, respondents consistently identify sport, leisure and religion
most often as the areas in which they volunteer, whereas justice, politics
and human rights score amongst the lowest. Volunteer involvement in
universities does not specifically feature in that survey but can often be
directly linked to some of the categories, for example, through community
activities and sports. Crucially, most volunteer involvement does not take
place through an organisation. The Community Life Survey refers to this
as ‘informal volunteering’ and asks about whether ‘an individual may have
given to other people, that is, apart from any help given through a group,
club, or organisation. This could be help for a friend, neighbour or someone else but not a relative’ and gives the following examples:
• Keeping in touch with someone who has difficulty getting out and
about, such as visiting in person, telephoning or e-mailing.
• Doing shopping, collecting pension or paying bills.
• Cooking, cleaning, laundry, gardening or other routine
household jobs.
• Decorating, or doing any kind of home or car repairs.
• Babysitting or caring for children.
• Sitting with or providing personal care, for example washing, dressing for someone who is sick or frail.
• Looking after a property or a pet for someone who is away.
• Giving advice.
• Writing letters or filling in forms.
• Representing someone, for example, talking to a council department
or to a doctor.
• Transporting or escorting someone, for example, to a hospital or on
an outing.
This raises the question of whether such volunteer involvement can or
should be associated with volunteer involvement in universities. Any of the
above types of volunteer involvement can be found in a range of forms,
such as regular, episodic or online involvement.
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1.2.1 Regular Volunteer Involvement
This is also sometimes referred to as long-term volunteer involvement, for
example, in the context of volunteer involvement abroad, but it remains
unclear how either ‘long-term’ or ‘regular’ precisely demarcate their differences by continuation, frequency or overall time spent. In general, it
describes volunteer involvement based on an extended relationship and is
seen as different from volunteer involvement which does not require an
extended relationship, see episodic volunteer involvement below. Regular
volunteer involvement seems preferred by volunteer involving organisations offering a better return on investments. Much of the literature on
volunteer involvement, especially on how to ‘manage’ volunteers focuses
on regular, long-term volunteers and how to recruit, support and
retain them.
1.2.2 One-Off Volunteer Involvement: Episodic
Handy et al. (2006) describe episodic volunteer involvement as short-­
term, one-off, connected to a specific activity. Such activities can be found
in all areas of volunteer involvement and can include events, emergency
response or community clean-ups. Episodic volunteer involvement is seen
as a growing phenomenon responding to changing life circumstances of
volunteers, even in areas of public health. It is considered by some volunteer involving organisations as problematic, because it is likely to increase
volunteer turnover (Hyde et al. 2014). Alternatively, it might be seen as
helpful when large numbers of volunteers are required at short notice,
sometimes also referred to as spontaneous volunteer involvement, especially in crises.
1.2.3 Online Volunteer Involvement
With changes in technology come changes in the way people volunteer.
Online volunteer involvement is being discussed as both a way to include
more people who might otherwise not be able to become involved
(Kanemura et al. 2023, p. 21), but at the very same time, it is seen as
excluding those who lack access or skills to use the necessary technology.
At Lancaster University, a range of ways to volunteer online are described,
for example, by becoming a digital buddy for Age UK, fundraising, writing letters to new friends for the ‘Crisis Project’, calling new friends,
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INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT
11
helping children to read, or becoming a volunteer tutor for the ‘Access
Project’ (Allison 2021).
1.2.4 Micro Volunteer Involvement
On the website of the London School of Economics and Political Sciences
(2023a), ‘micro volunteering’ is described as “a chance for a volunteer to
donate small chunks of time to a charitable project, often through a web-­
enabled device”. Heley et al. (2022) headline this form of volunteer
involvement as ‘Volunteering in the Bath’ and discuss the implications for
policy. Broadly, this form of volunteering shares similarities with episodic
and online volunteering but is distinguished by a particularly short involvement on each occasion.
1.3 Who Organises Volunteer Involvement?
The vast majority of volunteer involvement is organised by volunteers
themselves, whether this is within organisations or without them. If organised within organisations, but without staff, these are often unregistered
associations or small registered clubs and groups.
Volunteer involvement by organisations with staff can be in voluntary
organisations like charity shops, but also in public bodies like hospitals or
museums, or through private companies such as care homes (Hill 2015)
or ‘employer supported volunteering’ (ESV) schemes. Yet, fewer than 10%
of voluntary organisations have paid staff (National Council for Voluntary
Organisations 2014, p. 4). There are no agreed terms and definitions for
such organisations. Currently, a term commonly but often uncritically
used is Voluntary Community Social Enterprise (VCSE) sector. A document from Community Action Suffolk describes it as follows:
The sector itself has been the beneficiary of many names to date – Civil Society,
the Third Sector, and the VCS to name a few. The VCSE sector is the current
‘catch all’ term that includes any organisation (incorporated or not) working
with Social Purposes. This ranges from small community based groups/schemes
(Good Neighbour Schemes, ‘Stitch & Knit’ or Cubs & Brownies etc.), through
to larger registered Charities that operate locally, regionally & nationally.
(Reid 2019)
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More recently, this is further extended to become VCFSE, to specifically include communities of faith (Community Action Suffolk 2023).
Without clear boundaries, the size of this ‘sector’ is unclear. According to
the Charity Commission, on 31 December 2022, 183,857 registered
charities had a combined income of £77,301,682,300, with 923,431
Trustees, 5,900,302 volunteers and 1,601,195 employees (Charity
Commission 2022). These numbers hide a very uneven landscape with a
very small number of major organisations with income of over
£100,000,000 and a vast majority of small organisations. Larger organisations appear mostly active in social care, whereas smaller organisations
seem to operate more in areas like youth clubs (National Council for
Voluntary Organisations 2022), with larger organisations having sophisticated bureaucracies and smaller organisation operating largely unbureaucratic (Rochester 1999).
1.3.1 Volunteer Involving Organisations
The term ‘volunteer involving organisations’ encapsulates a wide range of
organisations and practices. It includes multi-million-pound charities that
may involve tens of thousands of volunteers, as well as the small, unregistered, ephemeral group sewing personal protective equipment for their
local hospital during the pandemic. Volunteer involving organisations
might be part of the VCSE sector as described above but are also found in
the public sector, for example, in hospitals, and in the private sector,
including through forms of ESV schemes and arguably also as volunteer
tourism.
1.3.2 Volunteer Involvement Infrastructure Organisations
Volunteer involvement infrastructure organisations principally match volunteers with volunteer involvement opportunities, rather than involving
volunteers in their own services. Over the years, such organisations, like
Volunteer Centres and Councils for Voluntary Services, have been funded
by the public purse to, amongst other tasks, promote volunteer involvement opportunities, offer training and guidance for those seeking to
involve volunteers, as well as provide information for those wanting to
become involved as volunteers. They are also found in other sectors, for
example, in universities providing matching services. King’s College
London (2023), for example, says it provides a ‘one-stop shop for
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INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT
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discovering opportunities and building connections with people and
organisations’ and the London School of Economics and Political Sciences
(2023b) even refers to this service using a term borrowed from volunteer
involvement infrastructure ‘Volunteer Centre’. There are now also private
sector and VCSE providers for online services to assist with the matching
function. The University of Exeter (2023) describes volunteer involvement as a means to become involved with communities, suggesting a
range of approaches including the University of Exeter Student’s Guild.
1.3.3 Associations
It seems often underestimated or wilfully ignored that the vast majority of
volunteer involvement is organised by small associations, mostly unregistered. The way they operate and organise volunteer involvement varies
greatly depending on their members and purposes. In ‘Grassroots
Associations’, the American Smith (2000) defines them as “locally based,
significantly autonomous, volunteer-run, formal nonprofit (i.e. voluntary)
groups…” and suggests that the dividing line between them and groups
with paid staff is not always clear. For this book, the dividing line of ‘no
paid staff’ versus ‘with paid staff’ shall suffice. The level of formality of
associations, however, can also vary greatly even within types. For example, some parents come together to collaborate with schools to raise funds
and support extracurricular activities but have no governing documents or
organisational bank account. Some get together and form parents and
teachers associations and become members of a national network to gain
insurance cover and advice, but are not formally incorporated. Once formally incorporated, some associations protect their trustees against liability by adopting constitutions that require certain levels of reporting and
registering, for example, as a ‘charitable incorporated organisation’. By the
very fact that they are unincorporated, the activities and impact of the
many small associations are difficult to capture (Soteri-Proctor and
Alcock 2013).
1.3.4 What Might Be Expected of Volunteers
In most volunteer involvement, what a volunteer can bring to an activity
is established as part of the activity but in some forms of volunteer involvement, the expectation of those involving volunteers are expressed explicitly. For example, trustee boards may seek someone with particular skills
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required by a treasurer, or universities may seek alumni with particular
skills to enthuse students. The University of the Arts London (2023) suggests that their alumni volunteers need to be “open, honest and bring positive and helpful advice” as mentors.
1.4 Who Becomes Involved as Volunteers?
The majority of the population in England, around 70%, have volunteered
at some point in their lives. They come from all areas of the country and
society and their involvement depends on their life circumstances
(Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport 2021). Over the last
two decades, the number of volunteers appears to have been falling slowly
from a high point at the beginning of the new millennium when the then
Blair government injected millions of pounds into the promotion of volunteer involvement and into the improvement of volunteer involvement
practices. Latest numbers from the Community Life Survey (Department
for Culture, Media and Sport 2023) show that volunteer involvement in
England at least once a month through groups or clubs has almost halved
in the last decade and is the lowest since the survey began in 2000, coinciding with government investment in volunteer involvement in England
steadily reducing since 2008; see Fig. 1.1.
The latest substantial survey by the National Council for Voluntary
Organisations which is based in England (McGarvey et al. 2019; Kanemura
Fig. 1.1 Volunteer numbers in England over time
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et al. 2023) on the whole confirmed figures previously identified by Low
(2007), with relevance for the subject of this book, that in England, those
with higher educational achievement are significantly more likely to volunteer:
48% of those educated to degree level or above had volunteered recently, compared with 20% of those with no qualifications.
(McGarvey et al. 2019, p. 18)
While gender appears to play a minor role in whether people volunteer
or not, age does. There were already indications of a comparable increase
in the number of younger volunteers, and this might have been significantly exacerbated as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which appears
to have affected older volunteers disproportionately (Grotz et al. 2020a).
However, overall, an individual’s characteristics appear less important
compared with their ability to be involved. As the ‘Vision for Volunteering’
(2023), an initiative in England, puts it “not everyone is equally able to
volunteer”.
1.5 Why Do People Become Involved
as Volunteer?
People’s motivations to become involved as volunteers have been widely
researched, for example, with seminal surveys in the UK by the National
Centre for Volunteering in 1997 (Davis Smith 1998) and the Institute for
Volunteering Research in 2007 (Low et al. 2007), repeated by the National
Council for Voluntary Organisations (McGarvey et al. 2019; Kanemura
et al. 2023). Those surveys consistently suggest that the most common
self-reported motivation for becoming involved as volunteers is the desire
of individuals to ‘improve things, help people’. Those surveys also established clearly that motivations may differ along sociodemocratic characteristics, finding, for example, and maybe unsurprisingly, that wanting ‘to
learn more skills’ as a motivation was highest amongst the 16- to 24-year-­
olds, ranking in their year group second only behind wanting to help people (Low et al. 2007, p. 35). Long before, however, observers had
established that becoming involved also reflected particular world views.
In the early twentieth century, Kropotkin (1902), for example, looked at
mutual aid as an evolutionary advantage in contrast to Darwin’s theories,
supporting more anarchist views, while directly after the Second World
War, the liberal reformer Beveridge (1948) spoke also of the philanthropic
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16
J. GROTZ
motive in addition to ‘mutual aid’. More recently, observers like Stebbins
and Graham (2004) added the discussion of the ‘serious leisure’ motive
and Rochester et al. (2010), for example, added ‘participation, advocacy
and campaigning’. The terms ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’ motivation have
also been applied, intrinsic expressing a benefit for the person involved as
a volunteer, whereas extrinsic is for a benefit for others or the environment. However, not everyone wants to be involved as a volunteer or wants
to be described as a volunteer. For example, campaigners and activists
might shy away from the label ‘volunteer’ as they see it as associated with
a gift relationship driven by those privileged helping to maintain rather
than challenge the status quo.
1.5.1 Mutual Aid Motive
The term ‘mutual aid’ has been used in a number of contexts such as in
the theories of Kropotkin (1902) and Beveridge (1948) but also when
describing the practice of self-help, for example, in groups where members
support each other without the involvement of medical or other professionals (Borkman 1999). More recently, it also emerged to describe the
activities of some associations which became active during the COVID-19
pandemic (Preston and Firth 2020). The mutual aid motive can be seen
explicitly as both intrinsic and extrinsic.
1.5.2 Philanthropic Motive
Beveridge (1948) describes this motive as “the desire by one’s personal
action to make life happier for others” (p. 121) and suggests that it springs
from a social conscience, “the feeling which makes men who are materially
comfortable, mentally uncomfortable so long as their neighbours are materially uncomfortable” (p. 9). The desire to help others can be seen as being
predominantly extrinsic; however, there is also a recognition of an associated intrinsic value, even within the seemingly most selfless act.
1.5.3 Leisure
Volunteer involvement as a form of leisure, for example, in sports or arts
is often seen as being predominantly intrinsic, yet its effects on public
health and community cohesion can also be observed. Furthermore,
Stebbins and Graham (2004) suggest that even volunteer involvement
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1
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT
17
that appears overtly extrinsic, such as described in the philanthropic
motive, for example, volunteer activities in emergency or first aid services,
may indeed be a part of a person’s leisure time and hence be intrinsically
motivated.
1.5.4 Participation, Advocacy and Campaigning
The inclusion of motivations around participation, advocacy and campaigning builds on disparate activities in society, for example, on the work
of disability campaigners like Barnes and Mercer (2004) arguing for user
led and inclusive public policy as part of a ‘Disability Movement’, making
a difference to social justice domestically or internationally (Amnesty
International UK 2023) or volunteer involvement and activism regarding
climate change (Greenpeace 2023). Motivations here often combine
intrinsic motivations such as achieving change for one’s own life, as well as
directly extrinsic motivations, such as volunteer involvement for others’
freedom, and a combination of both by trying to save not just the planet
but also one’s own life.
1.6 On Not Conflating Volunteer Involvement
with Activities of Voluntary Community Social
Enterprise Paid Staff
Volunteer involvement at times becomes conflated with the activities of
organisations in the Voluntary Community and Social Enterprise sector
and their paid staff. For example, it is likely that a university has connections to local VCSE infrastructure organisations or large charities or public
sector organisations such as hospitals and libraries. Those organisations
while charitable or ‘not for profit’ might involve volunteers, but they are
likely to be operated by paid staff. Universities might have a wide range of
agreements or collaborations with such organisations including membership in local research networks. However, even if partner organisations
involve volunteers in parts of their operations or act as umbrella organisations for others which do, such collaborations should not be conflated
with volunteer involvement, unless volunteers are explicitly involved in
certain activities. In this context, participation and engagement might also
be conflated with involvement.
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J. GROTZ
1.7 A Spectrum of Constructing
Volunteer Involvement
The way volunteer involvement is perceived, for example, as service or as
democratic participation, can make a fundamental difference to how it is
put into practice. In this context, volunteer involvement is currently still
described by many observers as a form of management of an alternative
workforce (see, for example, Jackson et al. 2019). Rochester (2013)
describes this as the dominant paradigm of viewing volunteer involvement
primarily as individuals giving time, offering some type of service. Those
dominant views of volunteer involvement, as for the most part transactional, are now being challenged, for example, by Grotz and Leonard
(2022). They distinguish, between two models of volunteer involvement,
transactional and participatory.
1.7.1 Transactional Volunteer Involvement
Volunteer involvement organised by organisations with paid staff is mostly
undertaken within a transactional model, in which volunteers first and
foremost either provide a service or where a specific outcome is intended.
In this model, volunteers are ‘managed’ and often treated as an alternative
workforce, the activities and their purpose are defined by the ‘managers’
who direct the volunteers. This is most likely to be found in volunteer
involvement which is perceived as service, such as in health and social care
or criminal justice, where volunteer involving organisation deliver paid or
otherwise public services.
1.7.2 Participatory Volunteer Involvement
Volunteer involvement organised by volunteers themselves is much more
likely to be undertaken within a participatory model, in which individuals
co-operate and co-produce outcomes with a shared, mutually agreed, purpose. Volunteer involvement in this model is likely to be less hierarchical.
It can be found more often in areas of sport, leisure and mutual-aid self-­
help groups.
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Philanthropic
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT
Leisure
Mutual Aid
19
Participation
unpaid labour
self determination
directive
interactive
collaborative
transactional
participatory
fundraising
sports
campaigning
mentoring
hospital and
social care
co-operative
food banks
activism
Fig. 1.2 Spectrum: transactional to participatory
1.7.3 Transaction–Participation: A Spectrum
Volunteer involvement in both the transactional and participatory models
are likely to include elements of the other and of course change over time.
They can be described and located on a spectrum, placing exclusively
transactional or participatory at either end, with ‘hybrids’, like sports, in
the middle, see Fig. 1.2. Billis and Rochester (2020) explore such hybridity in organisational settings.
1.8 An International Perspective
This chapter has already illustrated the many different interpretations of
volunteer involvement and the different words that are used to describe it.
Looking around the globe that complexity expands exponentially as words
and concepts are encoded differently. Two types of differences can be easily observed. One relates to activities which share many similarities but are
being called different words and being underpinned by different ideologies, where organisers might not want to be compared. As an illustration,
in the People’s Republic of China, on the annual national day of ‘Learn
from Lei Feng’, 5 March, people are encouraged to volunteer at events,
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20
J. GROTZ
for example, organising communal clean ups. To live like the Red Army
soldier Lei Feng, after which the day is named, is to be willing to help,
being friendly and kind. A very similar event was held in the UK to coincide with the coronation of the King in May 2023: “The Big Help Out will
encourage people to try volunteering for themselves and join the work being
undertaken to support their local areas” (Royal UK 2023). While both days
are promoting volunteer involvement and sharing much of their rhetoric,
they remain ideologically different, a situation repeated across the globe
over and over.
The second is potentially more malign as it has been subject to paradigms originating in the Global North with Global South communities
only slowly asserting social constructs that underpin volunteer involvement in their cultures as being of equal value and worth recognition.
While previous studies imposed dominant paradigms, for example,
homogenising under a paradigm of ‘non-profit’ (see, for example, Anheier
and Salamon 2001), observers like Millora (2022) now challenge this and
explore, for example, “the pre-colonial concept of ‘pakikipagkapwa’ where a
person helps another because he/she is an extension of one’s self, rather than
being a different, less-privileged other needing help” (p. 174). The
homogenising paradigms still heavily feature in global measures of volunteer involvement and are still included in the latest State of the Worlds
Volunteerism Report 2022 by United Nations Volunteers, however, now
alongside fuller accounts of volunteer involvement in the Global South.
The State of the Worlds Volunteerism Report 2022 still provides internationally the most prominent definition of volunteer involvement in the
main reflecting the three key principles identified above as relevant
in the UK:
a wide range of activities, including traditional forms of mutual aid and self-­
help, formal service delivery and other forms of civic participation, undertaken
of free will, for the general public good and where monetary reward is not the
principal motivating factor.
(United Nations Volunteers (UNV) programme 2021, p. 16)
Davis Smith maps the rise of volunteer involvement on the UN agenda
since the 1995 earthquake in Kobe, Japan (Davis Smith 2022, p. 45).
Since then, the UN’s position appears to have shifted from an instrumental approach co-opting volunteer involvement to help deliver development
goals (United Nations General Assembly 2001) to a recognition of
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INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT
21
volunteer involvement as a societal force. However, views on volunteer
involvement still vary greatly around the globe, with an increasing literature emerging in the Global South. There are now clear calls to de-­colonise
concepts of volunteer involvement (Lukka 2022). Part of an international
perspective therefore also has to be the semi-colonial form of overseas
development services delivered by volunteers, supported at the state level
(Sobocinska 2017) as well as forms of volunteer tourism (Wearing
et al. 2017).
1.9 An Inclusion Perspective
An inclusive perspective recognises that the way volunteer involvement is
undertaken indicates personal and political ideologies and attitudes to
equity, diversity, inclusion, power and privilege. At least three types of
exclusion and inclusion might be apparent in practice, the first relating to
a lack of agency and resources, the second relating to using agency and
resources, and the third relating to institutional settings and government
relationships.
First, while those with resources of time, money and social capital, such
as strong personal networks (Putnam 2000), will find it easy to become
involved as volunteers, often further strengthening their social capital,
others cannot become involved as volunteers even if they want to. A simple example is if a potential volunteer does not have the means to travel to
a volunteer involvement opportunity. They might not have private transport and if there is no public transport or they cannot afford it, they are
excluded from that opportunity. It becomes more complex when their
direct access is restricted, for example, due to disability or if they never
hear about the volunteer involvement in the first place because they are
excluded from the communication channels used. Unfortunately, it
appears that those who might personally benefit the most from volunteer
involvement are also the least likely to become involved, at times facing
insurmountable barriers (Stuart et al. 2020).
Secondly, volunteer involvement can be divisive and the way it is organised can favour some groups over others. In divided communities, volunteer involvement might be segregated, for example, along religious lines.
Around contentious political issues or some sports fan groups, volunteer
involvement might even lead to violent confrontation. Volunteers may use
their agency to fiercely include or exclude, for example, around the topic
of ‘reproductive health’ in the USA. Furthermore, organisations can
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22
J. GROTZ
deliberately or out of ignorance create inclusionary and exclusionary practices. Hustinx et al. (2022) now argue that research will need to address
systemic inequalities in volunteer involvement.
Finally, not every institution supports all forms of volunteer involvement. For example, in 2009, the Trade Union Congress and Volunteering
England, the latter an organisation which has since been dissolved, developed a charter setting out the key principles on which volunteer involvement is organised and how good relations between paid staff and volunteers
are built (Trades Union Congress 2009). Also, governments might
encourage some forms but not others. In the UK, a range of purposes and
activities such as animal welfare are endorsed by the government and can
become tax-exempt; however, demonstrating outside Parliament in
London might now be illegal.
Some universities in the UK are reflecting on this, for example, as part
of a programme for ‘Decolonising Global Health’ the London School of
Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (2023) has volunteer involvement opportunities in six workstreams.
1.10 Summary and Conclusion
In the UK alone, every day, millions are volunteering. Yet, it is difficult to
capture the concept of volunteer involvement accurately. This is not just
because it is a complex phenomenon, but also because there is no consensus about how to define or describe it. The same applies for the term
involvement especially in a university and research context. To provide a
baseline for balanced discussions in the next sections of the book, definitions have been selected that allow a broad interpretation, but are also
distinguishable through their focus on an individual’s agency. Examples of
where volunteer involvement takes place, who volunteers and why, were
provided within generally accepted parameters, yet capturing a range of
perspectives. There is no one correct way of volunteer involvement as considering the spectrum of transactional and participatory approaches might
assist with locating and discussing activities, in a changing policy and practice landscape. As has been pointed out, the discussions of volunteer
involvement should include an international and inclusion perspective, as
they are marked by cultural background, linguistic differences as well as
personal and political ideologies. In conclusion, there is no simple answer
to the question: ‘What is volunteer involvement?’; however, the evidence
is overwhelming that it is a phenomenon which affects every individual in
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INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT
23
some form, and which has a major influence on how they live their lives
and on their relationships with others. From an institutional perspective, it
can be a multi-million-pound business with the power to influence policy
and practice, and from a government perspective, it can be seen as the
guarantor of a free and diverse society.
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