Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Volunteer Involvement in UK Universities Inclusion, Excellence, Impact Jurgen Grotz Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Rethinking University-Community Policy Connections Series Editors Thomas Andrew Bryer University of Central Florida Orlando, USA John Diamond Edge Hill University Ormskirk, UK Carolyn Kagan Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester, UK Jolanta Vaičiūnienė Kaunas University of Technology Kaunas, Lithuania Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Rethinking University-Community Policy Connections will publish works by scholars, practitioners, and ‘prac-ademics’ across a range of countries to explore substantive policy or management issues in the bringing together of higher education institutions and community-based organizations, nongovernmental organizations, governments, and businesses. Such partnerships afford unique opportunities to transform practice, develop innovation, incubate entrepreneurship, strengthen communities, and transform lives. Yet such potential is often not realized due to bureaucratic, cultural, or legal barriers erected between higher education institutions and the wider community. The global experience is common, though the precise mechanisms that prevent university-community collaboration or that enable successful and sustainable partnership vary within and across countries. Books in the series will facilitate dialogue across country experiences, help identify cross-cutting best practices, and to enhance the theory of university-community relation. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Jurgen Grotz Volunteer Involvement in UK Universities Inclusion, Excellence, Impact Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Jurgen Grotz London, UK ISSN 2629-2432 ISSN 2629-2440 (electronic) Rethinking University-Community Policy Connections ISBN 978-3-031-45057-0 ISBN 978-3-031-45058-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45058-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com I dedicate this book to my friend and mentor, Colin Rochester, who died while I was writing this book. I cannot imagine having written this book without the personal, professional and intellectual support he has provided me with, over more than two decades. He would not have agreed with everything I am saying, but he would have encouraged me to say it. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Preface ‘Volunteer Involvement in UK Universities’ is part of a book series under the theme of ‘Rethinking University-Community Policy Connections’, which explores ‘substantive policy or management issues in the bringing together of Higher Education Institutions and community-based organisations, nongovernmental organisations, governments and businesses’. The editors of that series state plainly and transparently that they are not approaching the subject as neutral observers undertaking an audit of community–university relationships but that they are committed to the ideas and values which argue that strong and connected relationships between universities and communities are an indicator of a potentially healthy democracy. The book series reflects a commitment to the idea that universities can realise their potential as being central to the social, economic and political lives of the communities within which they are located. This book addresses volunteer involvement as a distinct and substantive policy and management issue in university-community relationships. However, while volunteer involvement relies on the relationships with community-based organisations, nongovernmental organisations, governments and businesses, it should not be conflated with more general collaboration, such as in public engagement activities. Volunteer involvement in universities is ubiquitous, extremely diverse and complex. This book provides examples, drawn from the websites of 147 higher education institutions in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, and builds on research undertaken by the Institute for Volunteering Research in English universities. Volunteer involvement and higher education share striking similarities, and volunteer involvement can vii Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com viii PREFACE have a compelling role in university-community relations. Understanding and evaluating volunteer involvement in universities can cut through rhetoric, expose ideologies and help improve the practices of universities’ when building relationship with the communities they operate in and optimise the difference a university can make in those communities. In this context, the strength of volunteer involvement can also be seen as an indicator of a university’s role in supporting democracy as a political ideal, its commitments to challenge inequities and its place as a civic institution. This book is designed to support a critical review of the role of volunteer involvement and to systematically assess how universities may strategically link it to their endeavours to be involved with communities on and off campus. It seeks to encourage critical consideration by university staff in strategic planning and evaluation functions, in careers and student support functions, as well as by students, for example, in leadership roles in students’ unions. It also aims to inform anyone charged with organising and enabling volunteer involvement in universities, such as in ‘people and culture’ functions and departments across campus and, importantly, all those off campus involved with them. As such, while the book is primarily intended for people within universities enacting volunteer involvement, it is also for all those who might want to become involved with universities as volunteers. Despite drawing mostly on examples from campuses around the UK, the book offers international and inclusion perspectives, seeking to inform all those interested in volunteer involvement in universities, not just in the UK but also beyond. The book comprehensively addresses modern volunteer involvement in universities as a complex policy and management issue, offering the reader insights into highly developed and sophisticated approaches to volunteer involvement. However, the research undertaken for this book has revealed that universities are often not taking full account of the body of evidence about volunteer involvement made available over the last three decades. Some policies and procedures in both the broader public sector and within institutions address how and why volunteer involvement can or should be undertaken in and through universities, for example, to protect individuals from harm. However, the wide range of policies and practices identified for this book do not appear to be aligned with universal strategic decisions within and across universities about volunteer involvement or follow clear patterns of community-university relationships. In universities across the UK, there does not appear to be a consensus about what forms of volunteer involvement should be undertaken, how and why. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com PREFACE ix While volunteer involvement is not the stated focus of universities, they act as volunteer involving organisations in that they involve students, staff, alumni and community members as volunteers in a great variety of intricate relationships. They also act as volunteer involvement infrastructure organisations when they match volunteers with public bodies, private companies, community organisations and communities. This book orders and explains the complexities of volunteer involvement in universities, not just by laying out and characterising the activities but also by reflecting on why they are undertaken, to what effect and what difference they make individually and combined. It will provide current practice examples from UK universities, drawn from their websites, to illustrate how universities approach the various aspects of volunteer involvement. Throughout the book, such examples will be deliberately drawn from institutions from all four nations of the UK because many aspects of volunteer involvement in universities fall under the responsibility of the individual nations as part of devolved powers. As a book about ‘substantive policy and management issues’, it is organised to provide information relevant to different groups within universities, such as academic staff reflecting on volunteer involvement in teaching and research; professional and faculty services, supporting students, for example, in career services or academics with work on impact assessment; and senior management strategically planning the various complex strands of volunteer involvement. For strategic planning and evaluation, the book offers potential measures within an assessment framework. Chapter 1 describes modern volunteer involvement as a complex and changing activity, explaining how key terms are defined and how they are understood differently by a range of stakeholders. It offers the latest data on where volunteer involvement happens in England, who organises it and who is involved, summarising volunteers’ sociodemographic characteristics. The chapter then outlines the distinction between volunteer involvement and general engagement with voluntary, community and social business organisations, discusses the spectrum of transactional and participatory approaches and offers international and inclusion perspectives to introducing volunteer involvement. Chapter 2 describes volunteer involvement in UK universities as ubiquitous, outlining its great diversity. Focusing on the activities of volunteers drawn from four different groups: students, staff, alumni and the public, it offers examples of the various forms of volunteer involvement these Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com x PREFACE groups undertake on and off campus and the institutional contexts in which this takes place. The chapter offers reflections on areas of common volunteer involvement, such as student volunteering in student societies, and introduces debates about areas which are currently less common or not widely discussed as part of volunteer involvement, such as Patient and Public Involvement and collegiate volunteer involvement. Chapter 3 introduces practice guidance for volunteer involvement in universities. It outlines the challenges and opportunities of modern volunteer involvement in the various forms undertaken in and with universities, explaining how administrations can balance the benefits for, needs of and risks regarding the involvement of students, staff, alumni, community volunteers, community organisations and neighbourhoods. Following individual volunteer involvement from the beginning to the end, the chapter describes the different roles and responsibilities of a university. The chapter then discusses bureaucratic problems and argues that the recognition of negative effects and misconduct in volunteer involvement is important to protect against or limit potentially harmful impacts. Chapter 4 offers a systematic approach to understanding the diverse purposes of volunteer involvement in universities. It provides a wide range of examples of actual and potential benefits for different types of volunteers, institutions and communities, addressing the challenge of balancing multiple purposes. The chapter then describes what institutions monitor about volunteer involvement and how they report what they measure. It concludes by considering the impact of volunteer involvement in universities and briefly reviewing universities’ submissions for assessment in the Research Excellence Framework (REF) in 2014 and 2021. Chapter 5 explores the strategic reasons for volunteer involvement in universities, considering management issues around planning and evaluation. It first offers examples of how universities’ volunteer involvement activities can align with missions, visions and values. The chapter then examines how volunteer involvement can be located within the key strategic strands of core functions and complementary functions, offering a strategic grid to systematically place activities. The chapter then discusses the discourses of democratic and civic universities, which can underpin the strategic directions of universities. Chapter 6 summarises the preceding topics, discussing volunteer involvement in universities with a view to establishing how it reflects on institutions’ endeavours to create and sustain successful university-­ community relationships. It outlines key components universities might Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com PREFACE xi seek to evidence when developing university-community relationships. The chapter offers a Theory of Change graphic for volunteer involvement in universities and ten basic indicators that can be used to evidence universities’ approaches and achievements, demonstrating that they are knowledgeable, are using and sharing data and evidence, are acting skilfully, as well as planning systematically and strategically. In summary, this book will not only provide a resource for university staff by comprehensively describing volunteer involvement practice in universities with examples illustrating the distinctiveness of contemporary volunteer involvement but also offer a contribution to strategic planning and evaluation, arguing that the way a university organises and enables volunteer involvement offers clear and transparent indicators of its approach to community relations. This book suggests that the way a higher education institution involves volunteers shows the world whether the organisation and its leaders are committed to community relations and whether they act understanding the complex nature of the range of relationships. University partners can judge whether they are valued and whether a university’s plans to involve them are sustainable and are likely to make a difference. While not part of the prominent national and international league tables, volunteer involvement is a visible marker of commitment to meaningful university-­ community relations. It can be viewed alongside indicators such as whether a university is seen to be a responsible employer, caring for students and staff, having a sustainable campus or treating equality and inclusion seriously. Therefore, volunteer involvement is not an optional extra, it is not free and it is not to be neglected but to be included in all parts of university life, knowledgably and strategically, as a ‘substantive policy or management issue’, not just regarding university-community relations but also supporting wider institutional success. London, UK Jurgen Grotz Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Acknowledgements I would like to thank the book series’ editors, in particular John Diamond, for their encouragement and constructive comments. I am deeply grateful to all my colleagues at the Institute for Volunteering Research and the members of its advisory panel, past and present. I am indebted to colleagues within the University of East Anglia, the Voluntary Sector Studies Network, the Association for Research in the Voluntary and Community Sector, the Association of Volunteer Managers, the Civic University Network and the countless volunteers who have inspired this book and whose activities are reflected on its pages. Special thanks go to Eylem Atakav, Sally Hughes, Fiona Lettice, Ruth Leonard, Ben Little, Mike Locke, Jo Stuart and Fiona Poland for their insightful comments on early drafts of this book. xiii Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Praise for Volunteer Involvement in UK Universities “Volunteer Involvement in UK Universities provides a comprehensive account of contemporary voluntary activities in universities. It highlights questions, such as the relationship between voluntary activity and research assessment, and the role of voluntary activity in sustaining higher education through being a ‘good citizen’, and civic missions. The volume draws on an extensive evidence base, and the attention to the different higher education landscapes across the UK’s constituent countries is particularly welcome. It brings a much-valued complex and nuanced account in exploring these ubiquitous and diverse voluntary experiences. Volunteer Involvement in UK Universities is required reading for all those wishing to understand voluntary activities in UK Higher Education.” —Rhys Dafydd Jones, Lecturer in Human Geography, Aberystwyth University, Wales “This engaging and accessible book brings together a comprehensive exploration of the landscape of volunteering within higher education. It makes the case for the importance of volunteering in the aims of the university sector, and with a critical lens suggests opportunities for doing better. The benefits are clear: both to volunteers and those they help, as well as for institutions with an eye on the increasing weight of people, culture, engagement and impact statements in future REF exercises. Essential reading for anyone involved in volunteer management in higher education; whether in teaching, research, impact or engagement.” —Alasdair Rutherford, Professor of Social Statistics, University of Stirling, Scotland “This important and highly readable book highlights the role of universities in connecting to wider communities through volunteering, whether ‘bringing the community in’, or embedding the university in the community. Written in a way that is simultaneously academically stimulating and accessible, the book is essential reading for anybody interested in the who, what, where and why of volunteering in the university context.” —Simon Teasdale, Professor in Management, Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com “This is an important and engaging book that positions volunteer involvement in higher education institutions as a distinct policy and management concern. Drawing on examples from brokered volunteering opportunities with local charities and student peer mentoring schemes to rewilding campuses and academic peer review, it pushes our understanding of volunteer involvement to highlight the breadth and diversity of volunteering by staff, students, alumni and the public.” —Georgina Brewis, Professor of Social History, University College London, England Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com About the Book Series and About the Book Rethinking University-Community Policy Connections will publish works by scholars, practitioners, and ‘prac-ademics’ across a range of countries to explore substantive policy or management issues in the bringing together of Higher Education Institutions and community-based organisations, nongovernmental organisations, governments and businesses. Such partnerships afford unique opportunities to transform practice, develop innovation, incubate entrepreneurship, strengthen communities and transform lives. Yet such potential is often not realised due to bureaucratic, cultural or legal barriers erected between Higher Education Institutions and the wider community. The global experience is common, though the precise mechanisms that prevent university-community collaboration or that enable successful and sustainable partnership vary within and across countries. Books in the series will facilitate dialogue across country experiences, help identify cross-cutting best practices and enhance the theory of university-­community relations. Providing a comprehensive overview of volunteer involvement in UK universities, this book addresses a distinct and substantive policy and management issue. Offering practice examples of volunteer involvement with students, staff, alumni and communities from 147 UK higher education institutions, it provides the background to understanding volunteer involvement. It introduces key concepts for critically assessing ways in which those who seek to involve volunteers can respond to rapidly changing environments. Drawing on a combination of theoretical perspectives xvii Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com xviii ABOUT THE BOOK SERIES AND ABOUT THE BOOK and practical experiences, the book systematically explores approaches based on the current structures of volunteer involvement in UK universities, which provides accessible insights for higher education institutions into how they can effectively organise volunteer involvement and maximise its societal impact. Developing ten indicators with measures to evidence universities’ strategic approaches and achievements in community–university relations, the book offers practical ways to plan, enable, monitor and assess the impact of volunteer involvement in universities. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Contents 1 Introduction to Volunteer Involvement 1 1.1What Is Volunteer Involvement? 3 1.2Where Does Volunteer Involvement Take Place, What Forms Are There and Who Promotes It? 8 1.3Who Organises Volunteer Involvement? 11 1.4Who Becomes Involved as Volunteers? 14 1.5Why Do People Become Involved as Volunteer? 15 1.6On Not Conflating Volunteer Involvement with Activities of Voluntary Community Social Enterprise Paid Staff 17 1.7A Spectrum of Constructing Volunteer Involvement 18 1.8An International Perspective 19 1.9An Inclusion Perspective 21 1.10Summary and Conclusion 22 References 23 2 Introduction to Volunteer Involvement in Universities 29 2.1Student Volunteer Involvement 30 2.2Staff Volunteer Involvement, Employer Supported Volunteering 37 2.3Alumni Volunteer Involvement 40 2.4Community Volunteers in Universities 41 xix Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com xx Contents 2.5Collegiate Volunteer Involvement 44 2.6Summary and Conclusion 46 References 46 3 Volunteer Involvement in Universities in Practice 55 3.1Connecting 57 3.2Collaborating 60 3.3Complementing 64 3.4Thorny Issues and Problems 66 3.5Dealing with Misconduct 69 3.6Risks and Prevention of Negative Effects 71 3.7Summary and Conclusion 73 References 74 4 The Purposes of Volunteer Involvement in Universities 81 4.1Who Benefits from Volunteer Involvement and How? 83 4.2What Can Be Counted Counts 93 4.3In the Pursuit of Impact 96 4.4Summary and Conclusion 97 References 98 5 Strategic Volunteer Involvement in Universities107 5.1Missions and Visions109 5.2The Role of Volunteer Involvement in the Delivery of Core Functions111 5.3The Role of Complementary Functions in the Delivery of Volunteer Involvement115 5.4Volunteer Involvement in Democratic and Civic University Activities119 5.5Summary and Conclusion123 References123 6 Summary and Conclusion131 6.1The Challenge of Complexity133 6.2The Value of Data134 6.3The Quandaries of Practice137 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Contents xxi 6.4The Esteem of Purpose138 6.5The Need for Strategy139 6.6A Window into the Institution141 6.7Rethinking University-Community Policy Connections143 References146 Glossary149 References153 Index155 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com About the Author Jurgen Grotz PhD is the Director of the Institute for Volunteering Research at the University of East Anglia. Born in Germany in 1963, he received his MA in Sinology in 1992 from Phillips University, Marburg, Germany, for work on disability in China, and his PhD in Sinology in 1996 from the University of London, UK, for his work on Chinese writing systems for visually impaired persons. He is an author, academic and practitioner with 30 years’ experience in applied research, working with a strong focus on participative and inclusive approaches. His mainly interdisciplinary research covers volunteer involvement in the public, private and voluntary sectors, focusing on the role of agency for everyone being involved as a volunteer or involving volunteers and the difference this makes to individuals, organisations, communities and societies. He co-edited the Palgrave Handbook of Volunteering, Civic Participation, and Nonprofit Associations (Smith et al. 2016), Mobilising Voluntary Action in the UK: Learning from the Pandemic (Hardill et al. 2022) and Volunteering, Research and the Test of Experience (Locke and Grotz 2022), and co-authored Patient and Public Involvement in Health and Social Care (Grotz et al. 2020) and Volunteer Involvement: An Introduction to Theory and Practice (Grotz and Leonard 2022). xxiii Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Abbreviations CLS ESV HEI LSE NCCPE NIHR RAG REF UCL VCSE Community Life Survey Employer Supported Volunteering Higher Education Institution London School of Economics and Political Sciences National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement National Institute for Health and Care Research Raising and Giving Research Excellence Framework University College London Voluntary Community Social Enterprise xxv Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com List of Figures Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 2.1 Fig. 6.1 Volunteer numbers in England over time Spectrum: transactional to participatory Volunteer involvement in the university Theory of change for strategic planning of volunteer involvement at universities 14 19 31 141 xxvii Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Volunteer Involvement Abstract This chapter describes modern volunteer involvement as a complex and changing activity, explaining how key terms are defined and how they are understood differently by a range of stakeholders. It offers the latest data on where volunteer involvement happens in England, who organises it and who is involved, summarising volunteers’ sociodemographic characteristics. The chapter then outlines the distinction between volunteer involvement and general engagement with voluntary, community and social business organisations, discusses the spectrum of transactional and participatory approaches and offers international and inclusion perspectives on introducing volunteer involvement. Keywords Definitions, Characteristics, Typologies, Organisational forms, International perspective, Inclusion perspective Volunteer involvement and higher education are strikingly similar in many ways. For example, they are fundamentally reliant on an individual’s choice rather than being compulsory. They also continuously respond to societal change. In the UK, higher education like volunteer involvement is still associated with socio economic privilege, less often addressing equity and power in compelling ways. Both higher education and volunteer © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. Grotz, Volunteer Involvement in UK Universities, Rethinking University-Community Policy Connections, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45058-7_1 1 Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 2 J. GROTZ involvement seem increasingly commodified, noticeably increasing their use of managerial terms and practices. The collegial nature of academia, even if lately more limited, shares features with volunteer involvement in mutual aid and volunteer involvement in professional associations. Academic collegiality relies heavily on activities that are not directly remunerated, are voluntary and are to make a direct difference, with an unwritten expectation of some reciprocity, such as peer reviewing papers and acting as examiners of students or assessors and reviewers of research proposals. Finally, and sadly often overlooked, like the need for science to be free of interference, volunteer involvement needs independence. The strength of volunteer involvement in the UK has been contrasted with totalitarian oppression elsewhere and described as a ‘distinguishing mark of a free society’. In a totalitarian society all action outside the citizen’s home, and it might be much more that goes on there, is directed or controlled by the State. By contrast, vigour and abundance of Voluntary Action outside one’s home, individually and in association with other citizens, for bettering one’s own life and that of one’s fellows are the distinguishing marks of a free society. They have been outstanding features of British life. (Beveridge 1948, p. 10) With such similarities, it is unsurprising that the two—universities and volunteer involvement—have been intertwined for centuries. Universities are closely linked to their local communities through a rich net of social connections, both planned and unplanned, that include a wide range of volunteer involvement, for example, through students and staff who volunteer in the communities of which they are part, in which they work and live and also through local residents who become involved as volunteers within the university. This can include students and staff of universities going out as volunteers into communities, becoming involved in health and social care or art and leisure, or it can be members of communities coming into the university as volunteers, not just as alumni but also as ‘Experts by Experience’ supporting teaching or as ‘Patient and Public Involvement’ representatives in research. Students also volunteer to support the university and activities of other students, often through societies. Academics still volunteer for each other, and for institutions including commercial ones, as well as collaborating in a range of collegial activities sharing knowledge and offering their skills pro bono. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 3 However, volunteer involvement in universities, while ubiquitous, appears remarkably limited and very poorly understood in comparison with volunteer involvement in other sectors. There seems to be an almost total absence of common measurements of the impact such involvement has, and what influences any such impact and how. Volunteer involvement does not seem to be viewed as a ‘substantive policy or management issue’ whether in the context of university-community relations or otherwise. As they are enacting volunteer involvement, universities appear to have been severely remiss in understanding what Beveridge also called for in the domestic sphere, that is, to reconcile the responsibilities of institutions with the responsibilities and rights of the individual (Beveridge 1948, p. 10). Before moving on to describe volunteer involvement in universities, however, it is necessary to clarify what ‘volunteer involvement’ entails, which means addressing the basic questions of ‘What is a volunteer?’, ‘What is involvement?’, ‘Where does volunteer involvement take place?’ ‘How is it organised and by whom?’, ‘Who becomes involved as volunteers and why?’. 1.1 What Is Volunteer Involvement? There is a great deal of confusion about terminology and definitions with regard to volunteer involvement. The term ‘volunteering’ is often employed as a catch all, both as a verb and a noun. Alternatives such as ‘voluntary action’ or ‘social action’ are also common. The starting position for ordering and explaining the various meanings of terms in this book is that ‘volunteering’ is not simply an activity but that it is based on relationships and on being involved. At the very basic level, one individual becomes involved either with another or many or with a cause. This book consistently uses ‘volunteer involvement’ instead of the term ‘volunteering’. This is to capture the multiple levels of those relationships, from becoming and acting as a volunteer, and to understanding the meanings of the verb to volunteer, through to organising opportunities for volunteer involvement and seeking societal impact. Volunteers, first and foremost, find or create their own opportunities to volunteer and ascribe their own reasons for becoming involved. But they may also be assisted in becoming involved. Volunteer involving organisations seek to undertake activities for which they create associated opportunities and find volunteers to become involved in them. Their reasons Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 4 J. GROTZ might align or differ from those of the volunteers they become involved with. And, of course, there are instances when volunteers and volunteer involving organisations develop new volunteer involvement opportunities together. In addition, volunteer involving infrastructure organisations seek to help with these various processes. ‘Volunteer involvement’ encapsulates all those aspects, and the book distinguishes between becoming involved as a volunteer, organising volunteer involvement opportunities, seeking impact through volunteer involvement, the associated reasons behind it, etc., rather than conflating them into a single term. Accepting that the term and associated concepts will remain contentious and open to other interpretations, this book refers to ‘volunteer involvement’ as the relationships of individual actors in self-determined activities that match the definition provided below. This means that involved volunteers are more than unquestioning philanthropists giving time, delivering services under direction or recipients of university handouts. Volunteers have agency, and physical, psychological and communication access to all relevant aspects of the activities they take part in. 1.1.1 What Is a Volunteer? The most common conceptualisation, in English, in the UK, has remained largely unchallenged for more than two decades, expressed in the verb ‘volunteering’, referring to activities with three key characteristics of being uncoerced, unpaid and making a difference. Those three components are demonstrably expressed in the ‘Volunteering Code of Good Practice’ 2007, which drew on the UK Volunteering Forum’s 1998 definition: Volunteering is an activity that involves the “commitment of time and energy for the benefit of society and the community and can take many forms. It is undertaken freely and by choice, without concern for financial gain”. (Quoted in Kearney 2001/2007, p. 4) Similar definitions have also been used widely in academic literature since the end of the last millennium (Cnaan et al. 1996; Wilson 2000; Hustinx et al. 2010; Smith et al. 2016). However, how these principles are applied depends heavily on context, geography and ideology. For example, the UK Home Office (2021), with powers on immigration, which are not devolved to the nations of the UK, in May 2021 advised staff as follows: Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 5 Volunteers are those who give their time for free to charitable or public sector organisations without any contractual obligation or entitlement. They are not employees or workers as defined by various statutory provisions. (p. 18) This definition applies UK-wide and transparently focuses on offering time for charitable purposes or the public sector and seeks to establish a clear distinction between an unpaid and paid workforce. It might therefore be generally unhelpful to refer to volunteer involvement as work or voluntary work, as is still quite common even in the relevant literature— see, for example, Jackson et al. (2019)—and hence it is unsurprising that it is taken up by some universities, albeit not necessarily consistently, for example, in the Newcastle University (2023) promotion of volunteer involvement for students: “Voluntary work can be flexible to fit around your commitments”. Some universities describe differences between the two. The Arts University Bournemouth (2023), for example, has a volunteer agreement which sets out a distinction between ‘volunteering’ and ‘voluntary work’, linking its advice to information provided by the government on calculating the minimum wage. Yet, it is essential to recognise that most relevant guidance does not apply to the entire UK as many policy areas relating to volunteer involvement are non-reserved powers, and volunteer involvement is interpreted differently in the four nations of the UK (Hardill et al. 2022). In the context of higher education, the National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement for instance quotes the following difference for volunteer involvement of students in Scotland and England, respectively: A student who gives time to provide service to others in either the academic community (eg Nightline, Welfare Volunteers) or the local community (eg Student Community Action, RAG). This does not include student volunteers such as clubs and societies, student representatives and Freshers’ Week Helpers. (Reilly and Odds 2003, p. 14) Students who volunteer in their time in their local communities through programmes organised at/by their students’ union or institution. (Student Volunteering England 2004, p. 14) How such principles are applied then still varies from institution to institution. See this example from the University of Exeter: Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 6 J. GROTZ Volunteering at the University of Exeter encompasses the efforts of all those who engage in extra-curricular activities for the benefit of others… volunteers who engage with the community…but also those who benefit the student community such as the Campus Media, Telephone Helpline and Listening Service and the efforts of RAG volunteers for raising more for local charities (Case Study RV2, 2004: CRAC). (Student Volunteering England 2004, p. 15) The University of Essex (2023) adopted a definition with fewer qualifications and a focus on individual agency while still including the term ‘benefit’ which is potentially contentious as it leaves open the question of how benefit is contextualised: Volunteering is any activity that involves spending time doing something unpaid that benefits individuals (other than close family members), groups, the environment and the community. Central to this definition is the fact that volunteering must be a choice freely made by each individual. In addition to the various interpretations of any key principles, it is important to recognise that available definitions in English do not accurately recognise the multiple and varying characteristics and culturally encoded concepts associated with volunteer involvement captured in the UK, where over 200 languages are spoken, and where ideologies and individual backgrounds also affect understandings of the concept. In English, the concepts associated with the verb ‘to volunteer’ are further complicated by its connotation of ‘offering to do something’, even if not associated with being unpaid but instead with paid work, military service or used even when choice is altogether or mostly absent, as when accepting ‘voluntary’ redundancy. With principles and definitions contentious, this book uses the definition of Grotz and Leonard (2022) for the verb ‘volunteering’ as “an individual’s activity undertaken by choice, without concern for financial gain and intended to make a difference outside one’s family” (p. 4). This definition has a focus on individuals’ agency, and while drawing on the popular characterisations of volunteer involvement, it is sharply reduced to three components: ‘choice’, ‘unpaid’ and ‘making a difference’, removing any ideological and technical additions such as ‘providing service’, the need for a ‘commitment’, being of ‘benefit’ or ‘taking place in charitable organisations’. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 7 1.1.2 What Is Involvement? Before considering what ‘involvement’ is to mean in the context of this book, as volunteer involvement in universities, it is necessary to disentangle the term from others often used interchangeably within universities, notably ‘engagement’ and ‘participation’. Grotz et al. (2020) discuss this confusion and refer, for example, to guidance by the NHS. Participation (sometimes referred to as engagement or involvement) can take place in a variety of ways, for example through social media, voluntary community and social enterprise (VCSE) organisations, elected representatives, formal consultations and meetings. (NHS England 2017, p. 6) The National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement (NCCPE) has chosen to define public engagement as below, and Research Councils UK reports substantive investment for this type of ‘engagement’ in research (Owen et al. 2016): Public engagement describes the myriad of ways in which the activity and benefits of higher education and research can be shared with the public. Engagement is by definition a two-way process, involving interaction and listening, with the goal of generating mutual benefit. (National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement 2023) The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) used the following very wide definition of Patient and Public Involvement in research: research being carried out ‘with’ or ‘by’ members of the public rather than ‘to’, ‘about’ or ‘for’ them (NIHR INVOLVE 2012, p. 6) In this book, the term ‘engagement’ is used to describe acting solely as a giver, whether it is by providing information or through any other form of handouts. It is not involvement. Similarly, ‘participation’ as ‘using’ the time and contribution of public volunteers without a clear commitment to acting on it and to forming a relationship, is not seen as involvement. It is important to note the term ‘using’ in the previous sentence. Any observations that speak of ‘using’ volunteers should be questioned as to intent. In Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 8 J. GROTZ this book, other than here to illustrate the point about the connotation of the word, ‘use’ will be strictly avoided in the context of and in direct combination with ‘volunteer’ or ‘volunteer involvement’. Involvement in this book describes enabling activities. Involvement is about an individual having agency in the decision to become involved and how. Involvement is about how individuals and organisations enable more individuals and organisations, ensuring that everyone is part of developing and understanding the activity, rather than just delivering it, and that it is undertaken with, rather than only by those who become involved as volunteers. 1.2 Where Does Volunteer Involvement Take Place, What Forms Are There and Who Promotes It? Volunteer involvement takes place in all parts of society, from before the cradle, in support of sexual health, to the grave by looking after cemeteries; from the holy in faith communities to the unholy in prisons and the groups that pursue self-declared unholy purposes. To gauge the level of volunteer involvement in different areas in England amongst the over 16s, the annual Community Life Survey (CLS), commissioned by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (2021) recognises a wide, albeit not comprehensive, range of organisational settings and also that volunteer involvement can take place without an organisation. The categories used in the CLS are similar to categories that have also been used since the early 2000s (see also Dingle 2001; Low et al. 2007) and show how volunteer involvement is seen to reach into all parts of society: Children and youth; Community activity; Community peacekeeping; Culture and recreation; Data collection; Economic justice; Education; Emergency response; Environment; Health care; Law and legal services; Personal assistance; Promotion of commerce; Promotion of knowledge; Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 9 Human rights, advocacy and politics; Religious volunteering; Social assistance. In the CLS, respondents consistently identify sport, leisure and religion most often as the areas in which they volunteer, whereas justice, politics and human rights score amongst the lowest. Volunteer involvement in universities does not specifically feature in that survey but can often be directly linked to some of the categories, for example, through community activities and sports. Crucially, most volunteer involvement does not take place through an organisation. The Community Life Survey refers to this as ‘informal volunteering’ and asks about whether ‘an individual may have given to other people, that is, apart from any help given through a group, club, or organisation. This could be help for a friend, neighbour or someone else but not a relative’ and gives the following examples: • Keeping in touch with someone who has difficulty getting out and about, such as visiting in person, telephoning or e-mailing. • Doing shopping, collecting pension or paying bills. • Cooking, cleaning, laundry, gardening or other routine household jobs. • Decorating, or doing any kind of home or car repairs. • Babysitting or caring for children. • Sitting with or providing personal care, for example washing, dressing for someone who is sick or frail. • Looking after a property or a pet for someone who is away. • Giving advice. • Writing letters or filling in forms. • Representing someone, for example, talking to a council department or to a doctor. • Transporting or escorting someone, for example, to a hospital or on an outing. This raises the question of whether such volunteer involvement can or should be associated with volunteer involvement in universities. Any of the above types of volunteer involvement can be found in a range of forms, such as regular, episodic or online involvement. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 10 J. GROTZ 1.2.1 Regular Volunteer Involvement This is also sometimes referred to as long-term volunteer involvement, for example, in the context of volunteer involvement abroad, but it remains unclear how either ‘long-term’ or ‘regular’ precisely demarcate their differences by continuation, frequency or overall time spent. In general, it describes volunteer involvement based on an extended relationship and is seen as different from volunteer involvement which does not require an extended relationship, see episodic volunteer involvement below. Regular volunteer involvement seems preferred by volunteer involving organisations offering a better return on investments. Much of the literature on volunteer involvement, especially on how to ‘manage’ volunteers focuses on regular, long-term volunteers and how to recruit, support and retain them. 1.2.2 One-Off Volunteer Involvement: Episodic Handy et al. (2006) describe episodic volunteer involvement as short-­ term, one-off, connected to a specific activity. Such activities can be found in all areas of volunteer involvement and can include events, emergency response or community clean-ups. Episodic volunteer involvement is seen as a growing phenomenon responding to changing life circumstances of volunteers, even in areas of public health. It is considered by some volunteer involving organisations as problematic, because it is likely to increase volunteer turnover (Hyde et al. 2014). Alternatively, it might be seen as helpful when large numbers of volunteers are required at short notice, sometimes also referred to as spontaneous volunteer involvement, especially in crises. 1.2.3 Online Volunteer Involvement With changes in technology come changes in the way people volunteer. Online volunteer involvement is being discussed as both a way to include more people who might otherwise not be able to become involved (Kanemura et al. 2023, p. 21), but at the very same time, it is seen as excluding those who lack access or skills to use the necessary technology. At Lancaster University, a range of ways to volunteer online are described, for example, by becoming a digital buddy for Age UK, fundraising, writing letters to new friends for the ‘Crisis Project’, calling new friends, Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 11 helping children to read, or becoming a volunteer tutor for the ‘Access Project’ (Allison 2021). 1.2.4 Micro Volunteer Involvement On the website of the London School of Economics and Political Sciences (2023a), ‘micro volunteering’ is described as “a chance for a volunteer to donate small chunks of time to a charitable project, often through a web-­ enabled device”. Heley et al. (2022) headline this form of volunteer involvement as ‘Volunteering in the Bath’ and discuss the implications for policy. Broadly, this form of volunteering shares similarities with episodic and online volunteering but is distinguished by a particularly short involvement on each occasion. 1.3 Who Organises Volunteer Involvement? The vast majority of volunteer involvement is organised by volunteers themselves, whether this is within organisations or without them. If organised within organisations, but without staff, these are often unregistered associations or small registered clubs and groups. Volunteer involvement by organisations with staff can be in voluntary organisations like charity shops, but also in public bodies like hospitals or museums, or through private companies such as care homes (Hill 2015) or ‘employer supported volunteering’ (ESV) schemes. Yet, fewer than 10% of voluntary organisations have paid staff (National Council for Voluntary Organisations 2014, p. 4). There are no agreed terms and definitions for such organisations. Currently, a term commonly but often uncritically used is Voluntary Community Social Enterprise (VCSE) sector. A document from Community Action Suffolk describes it as follows: The sector itself has been the beneficiary of many names to date – Civil Society, the Third Sector, and the VCS to name a few. The VCSE sector is the current ‘catch all’ term that includes any organisation (incorporated or not) working with Social Purposes. This ranges from small community based groups/schemes (Good Neighbour Schemes, ‘Stitch & Knit’ or Cubs & Brownies etc.), through to larger registered Charities that operate locally, regionally & nationally. (Reid 2019) Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 12 J. GROTZ More recently, this is further extended to become VCFSE, to specifically include communities of faith (Community Action Suffolk 2023). Without clear boundaries, the size of this ‘sector’ is unclear. According to the Charity Commission, on 31 December 2022, 183,857 registered charities had a combined income of £77,301,682,300, with 923,431 Trustees, 5,900,302 volunteers and 1,601,195 employees (Charity Commission 2022). These numbers hide a very uneven landscape with a very small number of major organisations with income of over £100,000,000 and a vast majority of small organisations. Larger organisations appear mostly active in social care, whereas smaller organisations seem to operate more in areas like youth clubs (National Council for Voluntary Organisations 2022), with larger organisations having sophisticated bureaucracies and smaller organisation operating largely unbureaucratic (Rochester 1999). 1.3.1 Volunteer Involving Organisations The term ‘volunteer involving organisations’ encapsulates a wide range of organisations and practices. It includes multi-million-pound charities that may involve tens of thousands of volunteers, as well as the small, unregistered, ephemeral group sewing personal protective equipment for their local hospital during the pandemic. Volunteer involving organisations might be part of the VCSE sector as described above but are also found in the public sector, for example, in hospitals, and in the private sector, including through forms of ESV schemes and arguably also as volunteer tourism. 1.3.2 Volunteer Involvement Infrastructure Organisations Volunteer involvement infrastructure organisations principally match volunteers with volunteer involvement opportunities, rather than involving volunteers in their own services. Over the years, such organisations, like Volunteer Centres and Councils for Voluntary Services, have been funded by the public purse to, amongst other tasks, promote volunteer involvement opportunities, offer training and guidance for those seeking to involve volunteers, as well as provide information for those wanting to become involved as volunteers. They are also found in other sectors, for example, in universities providing matching services. King’s College London (2023), for example, says it provides a ‘one-stop shop for Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 13 discovering opportunities and building connections with people and organisations’ and the London School of Economics and Political Sciences (2023b) even refers to this service using a term borrowed from volunteer involvement infrastructure ‘Volunteer Centre’. There are now also private sector and VCSE providers for online services to assist with the matching function. The University of Exeter (2023) describes volunteer involvement as a means to become involved with communities, suggesting a range of approaches including the University of Exeter Student’s Guild. 1.3.3 Associations It seems often underestimated or wilfully ignored that the vast majority of volunteer involvement is organised by small associations, mostly unregistered. The way they operate and organise volunteer involvement varies greatly depending on their members and purposes. In ‘Grassroots Associations’, the American Smith (2000) defines them as “locally based, significantly autonomous, volunteer-run, formal nonprofit (i.e. voluntary) groups…” and suggests that the dividing line between them and groups with paid staff is not always clear. For this book, the dividing line of ‘no paid staff’ versus ‘with paid staff’ shall suffice. The level of formality of associations, however, can also vary greatly even within types. For example, some parents come together to collaborate with schools to raise funds and support extracurricular activities but have no governing documents or organisational bank account. Some get together and form parents and teachers associations and become members of a national network to gain insurance cover and advice, but are not formally incorporated. Once formally incorporated, some associations protect their trustees against liability by adopting constitutions that require certain levels of reporting and registering, for example, as a ‘charitable incorporated organisation’. By the very fact that they are unincorporated, the activities and impact of the many small associations are difficult to capture (Soteri-Proctor and Alcock 2013). 1.3.4 What Might Be Expected of Volunteers In most volunteer involvement, what a volunteer can bring to an activity is established as part of the activity but in some forms of volunteer involvement, the expectation of those involving volunteers are expressed explicitly. For example, trustee boards may seek someone with particular skills Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 14 J. GROTZ required by a treasurer, or universities may seek alumni with particular skills to enthuse students. The University of the Arts London (2023) suggests that their alumni volunteers need to be “open, honest and bring positive and helpful advice” as mentors. 1.4 Who Becomes Involved as Volunteers? The majority of the population in England, around 70%, have volunteered at some point in their lives. They come from all areas of the country and society and their involvement depends on their life circumstances (Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport 2021). Over the last two decades, the number of volunteers appears to have been falling slowly from a high point at the beginning of the new millennium when the then Blair government injected millions of pounds into the promotion of volunteer involvement and into the improvement of volunteer involvement practices. Latest numbers from the Community Life Survey (Department for Culture, Media and Sport 2023) show that volunteer involvement in England at least once a month through groups or clubs has almost halved in the last decade and is the lowest since the survey began in 2000, coinciding with government investment in volunteer involvement in England steadily reducing since 2008; see Fig. 1.1. The latest substantial survey by the National Council for Voluntary Organisations which is based in England (McGarvey et al. 2019; Kanemura Fig. 1.1 Volunteer numbers in England over time Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 15 et al. 2023) on the whole confirmed figures previously identified by Low (2007), with relevance for the subject of this book, that in England, those with higher educational achievement are significantly more likely to volunteer: 48% of those educated to degree level or above had volunteered recently, compared with 20% of those with no qualifications. (McGarvey et al. 2019, p. 18) While gender appears to play a minor role in whether people volunteer or not, age does. There were already indications of a comparable increase in the number of younger volunteers, and this might have been significantly exacerbated as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which appears to have affected older volunteers disproportionately (Grotz et al. 2020a). However, overall, an individual’s characteristics appear less important compared with their ability to be involved. As the ‘Vision for Volunteering’ (2023), an initiative in England, puts it “not everyone is equally able to volunteer”. 1.5 Why Do People Become Involved as Volunteer? People’s motivations to become involved as volunteers have been widely researched, for example, with seminal surveys in the UK by the National Centre for Volunteering in 1997 (Davis Smith 1998) and the Institute for Volunteering Research in 2007 (Low et al. 2007), repeated by the National Council for Voluntary Organisations (McGarvey et al. 2019; Kanemura et al. 2023). Those surveys consistently suggest that the most common self-reported motivation for becoming involved as volunteers is the desire of individuals to ‘improve things, help people’. Those surveys also established clearly that motivations may differ along sociodemocratic characteristics, finding, for example, and maybe unsurprisingly, that wanting ‘to learn more skills’ as a motivation was highest amongst the 16- to 24-year-­ olds, ranking in their year group second only behind wanting to help people (Low et al. 2007, p. 35). Long before, however, observers had established that becoming involved also reflected particular world views. In the early twentieth century, Kropotkin (1902), for example, looked at mutual aid as an evolutionary advantage in contrast to Darwin’s theories, supporting more anarchist views, while directly after the Second World War, the liberal reformer Beveridge (1948) spoke also of the philanthropic Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 16 J. GROTZ motive in addition to ‘mutual aid’. More recently, observers like Stebbins and Graham (2004) added the discussion of the ‘serious leisure’ motive and Rochester et al. (2010), for example, added ‘participation, advocacy and campaigning’. The terms ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’ motivation have also been applied, intrinsic expressing a benefit for the person involved as a volunteer, whereas extrinsic is for a benefit for others or the environment. However, not everyone wants to be involved as a volunteer or wants to be described as a volunteer. For example, campaigners and activists might shy away from the label ‘volunteer’ as they see it as associated with a gift relationship driven by those privileged helping to maintain rather than challenge the status quo. 1.5.1 Mutual Aid Motive The term ‘mutual aid’ has been used in a number of contexts such as in the theories of Kropotkin (1902) and Beveridge (1948) but also when describing the practice of self-help, for example, in groups where members support each other without the involvement of medical or other professionals (Borkman 1999). More recently, it also emerged to describe the activities of some associations which became active during the COVID-19 pandemic (Preston and Firth 2020). The mutual aid motive can be seen explicitly as both intrinsic and extrinsic. 1.5.2 Philanthropic Motive Beveridge (1948) describes this motive as “the desire by one’s personal action to make life happier for others” (p. 121) and suggests that it springs from a social conscience, “the feeling which makes men who are materially comfortable, mentally uncomfortable so long as their neighbours are materially uncomfortable” (p. 9). The desire to help others can be seen as being predominantly extrinsic; however, there is also a recognition of an associated intrinsic value, even within the seemingly most selfless act. 1.5.3 Leisure Volunteer involvement as a form of leisure, for example, in sports or arts is often seen as being predominantly intrinsic, yet its effects on public health and community cohesion can also be observed. Furthermore, Stebbins and Graham (2004) suggest that even volunteer involvement Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 17 that appears overtly extrinsic, such as described in the philanthropic motive, for example, volunteer activities in emergency or first aid services, may indeed be a part of a person’s leisure time and hence be intrinsically motivated. 1.5.4 Participation, Advocacy and Campaigning The inclusion of motivations around participation, advocacy and campaigning builds on disparate activities in society, for example, on the work of disability campaigners like Barnes and Mercer (2004) arguing for user led and inclusive public policy as part of a ‘Disability Movement’, making a difference to social justice domestically or internationally (Amnesty International UK 2023) or volunteer involvement and activism regarding climate change (Greenpeace 2023). Motivations here often combine intrinsic motivations such as achieving change for one’s own life, as well as directly extrinsic motivations, such as volunteer involvement for others’ freedom, and a combination of both by trying to save not just the planet but also one’s own life. 1.6 On Not Conflating Volunteer Involvement with Activities of Voluntary Community Social Enterprise Paid Staff Volunteer involvement at times becomes conflated with the activities of organisations in the Voluntary Community and Social Enterprise sector and their paid staff. For example, it is likely that a university has connections to local VCSE infrastructure organisations or large charities or public sector organisations such as hospitals and libraries. Those organisations while charitable or ‘not for profit’ might involve volunteers, but they are likely to be operated by paid staff. Universities might have a wide range of agreements or collaborations with such organisations including membership in local research networks. However, even if partner organisations involve volunteers in parts of their operations or act as umbrella organisations for others which do, such collaborations should not be conflated with volunteer involvement, unless volunteers are explicitly involved in certain activities. In this context, participation and engagement might also be conflated with involvement. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 18 J. GROTZ 1.7 A Spectrum of Constructing Volunteer Involvement The way volunteer involvement is perceived, for example, as service or as democratic participation, can make a fundamental difference to how it is put into practice. In this context, volunteer involvement is currently still described by many observers as a form of management of an alternative workforce (see, for example, Jackson et al. 2019). Rochester (2013) describes this as the dominant paradigm of viewing volunteer involvement primarily as individuals giving time, offering some type of service. Those dominant views of volunteer involvement, as for the most part transactional, are now being challenged, for example, by Grotz and Leonard (2022). They distinguish, between two models of volunteer involvement, transactional and participatory. 1.7.1 Transactional Volunteer Involvement Volunteer involvement organised by organisations with paid staff is mostly undertaken within a transactional model, in which volunteers first and foremost either provide a service or where a specific outcome is intended. In this model, volunteers are ‘managed’ and often treated as an alternative workforce, the activities and their purpose are defined by the ‘managers’ who direct the volunteers. This is most likely to be found in volunteer involvement which is perceived as service, such as in health and social care or criminal justice, where volunteer involving organisation deliver paid or otherwise public services. 1.7.2 Participatory Volunteer Involvement Volunteer involvement organised by volunteers themselves is much more likely to be undertaken within a participatory model, in which individuals co-operate and co-produce outcomes with a shared, mutually agreed, purpose. Volunteer involvement in this model is likely to be less hierarchical. It can be found more often in areas of sport, leisure and mutual-aid self-­ help groups. Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 Philanthropic INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT Leisure Mutual Aid 19 Participation unpaid labour self determination directive interactive collaborative transactional participatory fundraising sports campaigning mentoring hospital and social care co-operative food banks activism Fig. 1.2 Spectrum: transactional to participatory 1.7.3 Transaction–Participation: A Spectrum Volunteer involvement in both the transactional and participatory models are likely to include elements of the other and of course change over time. They can be described and located on a spectrum, placing exclusively transactional or participatory at either end, with ‘hybrids’, like sports, in the middle, see Fig. 1.2. Billis and Rochester (2020) explore such hybridity in organisational settings. 1.8 An International Perspective This chapter has already illustrated the many different interpretations of volunteer involvement and the different words that are used to describe it. Looking around the globe that complexity expands exponentially as words and concepts are encoded differently. Two types of differences can be easily observed. One relates to activities which share many similarities but are being called different words and being underpinned by different ideologies, where organisers might not want to be compared. As an illustration, in the People’s Republic of China, on the annual national day of ‘Learn from Lei Feng’, 5 March, people are encouraged to volunteer at events, Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 20 J. GROTZ for example, organising communal clean ups. To live like the Red Army soldier Lei Feng, after which the day is named, is to be willing to help, being friendly and kind. A very similar event was held in the UK to coincide with the coronation of the King in May 2023: “The Big Help Out will encourage people to try volunteering for themselves and join the work being undertaken to support their local areas” (Royal UK 2023). While both days are promoting volunteer involvement and sharing much of their rhetoric, they remain ideologically different, a situation repeated across the globe over and over. The second is potentially more malign as it has been subject to paradigms originating in the Global North with Global South communities only slowly asserting social constructs that underpin volunteer involvement in their cultures as being of equal value and worth recognition. While previous studies imposed dominant paradigms, for example, homogenising under a paradigm of ‘non-profit’ (see, for example, Anheier and Salamon 2001), observers like Millora (2022) now challenge this and explore, for example, “the pre-colonial concept of ‘pakikipagkapwa’ where a person helps another because he/she is an extension of one’s self, rather than being a different, less-privileged other needing help” (p. 174). The homogenising paradigms still heavily feature in global measures of volunteer involvement and are still included in the latest State of the Worlds Volunteerism Report 2022 by United Nations Volunteers, however, now alongside fuller accounts of volunteer involvement in the Global South. The State of the Worlds Volunteerism Report 2022 still provides internationally the most prominent definition of volunteer involvement in the main reflecting the three key principles identified above as relevant in the UK: a wide range of activities, including traditional forms of mutual aid and self-­ help, formal service delivery and other forms of civic participation, undertaken of free will, for the general public good and where monetary reward is not the principal motivating factor. (United Nations Volunteers (UNV) programme 2021, p. 16) Davis Smith maps the rise of volunteer involvement on the UN agenda since the 1995 earthquake in Kobe, Japan (Davis Smith 2022, p. 45). Since then, the UN’s position appears to have shifted from an instrumental approach co-opting volunteer involvement to help deliver development goals (United Nations General Assembly 2001) to a recognition of Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 21 volunteer involvement as a societal force. However, views on volunteer involvement still vary greatly around the globe, with an increasing literature emerging in the Global South. There are now clear calls to de-­colonise concepts of volunteer involvement (Lukka 2022). Part of an international perspective therefore also has to be the semi-colonial form of overseas development services delivered by volunteers, supported at the state level (Sobocinska 2017) as well as forms of volunteer tourism (Wearing et al. 2017). 1.9 An Inclusion Perspective An inclusive perspective recognises that the way volunteer involvement is undertaken indicates personal and political ideologies and attitudes to equity, diversity, inclusion, power and privilege. At least three types of exclusion and inclusion might be apparent in practice, the first relating to a lack of agency and resources, the second relating to using agency and resources, and the third relating to institutional settings and government relationships. First, while those with resources of time, money and social capital, such as strong personal networks (Putnam 2000), will find it easy to become involved as volunteers, often further strengthening their social capital, others cannot become involved as volunteers even if they want to. A simple example is if a potential volunteer does not have the means to travel to a volunteer involvement opportunity. They might not have private transport and if there is no public transport or they cannot afford it, they are excluded from that opportunity. It becomes more complex when their direct access is restricted, for example, due to disability or if they never hear about the volunteer involvement in the first place because they are excluded from the communication channels used. Unfortunately, it appears that those who might personally benefit the most from volunteer involvement are also the least likely to become involved, at times facing insurmountable barriers (Stuart et al. 2020). Secondly, volunteer involvement can be divisive and the way it is organised can favour some groups over others. In divided communities, volunteer involvement might be segregated, for example, along religious lines. Around contentious political issues or some sports fan groups, volunteer involvement might even lead to violent confrontation. Volunteers may use their agency to fiercely include or exclude, for example, around the topic of ‘reproductive health’ in the USA. Furthermore, organisations can Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 22 J. GROTZ deliberately or out of ignorance create inclusionary and exclusionary practices. Hustinx et al. (2022) now argue that research will need to address systemic inequalities in volunteer involvement. Finally, not every institution supports all forms of volunteer involvement. For example, in 2009, the Trade Union Congress and Volunteering England, the latter an organisation which has since been dissolved, developed a charter setting out the key principles on which volunteer involvement is organised and how good relations between paid staff and volunteers are built (Trades Union Congress 2009). Also, governments might encourage some forms but not others. In the UK, a range of purposes and activities such as animal welfare are endorsed by the government and can become tax-exempt; however, demonstrating outside Parliament in London might now be illegal. Some universities in the UK are reflecting on this, for example, as part of a programme for ‘Decolonising Global Health’ the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (2023) has volunteer involvement opportunities in six workstreams. 1.10 Summary and Conclusion In the UK alone, every day, millions are volunteering. Yet, it is difficult to capture the concept of volunteer involvement accurately. This is not just because it is a complex phenomenon, but also because there is no consensus about how to define or describe it. The same applies for the term involvement especially in a university and research context. To provide a baseline for balanced discussions in the next sections of the book, definitions have been selected that allow a broad interpretation, but are also distinguishable through their focus on an individual’s agency. Examples of where volunteer involvement takes place, who volunteers and why, were provided within generally accepted parameters, yet capturing a range of perspectives. There is no one correct way of volunteer involvement as considering the spectrum of transactional and participatory approaches might assist with locating and discussing activities, in a changing policy and practice landscape. As has been pointed out, the discussions of volunteer involvement should include an international and inclusion perspective, as they are marked by cultural background, linguistic differences as well as personal and political ideologies. In conclusion, there is no simple answer to the question: ‘What is volunteer involvement?’; however, the evidence is overwhelming that it is a phenomenon which affects every individual in Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download By email at student.support@hotmail.com 1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUNTEER INVOLVEMENT 23 some form, and which has a major influence on how they live their lives and on their relationships with others. From an institutional perspective, it can be a multi-million-pound business with the power to influence policy and practice, and from a government perspective, it can be seen as the guarantor of a free and diverse society. References Amnesty International UK (2023) ‘Volunteer for Amnesty’, a page on the website of Amnesty International UK, available from https://www.amnesty.org.uk/ jobs/volunteer [Accessed 14.02.2023]. Anheier, H.K. and Salamon, L.M. (2001) Volunteering in cross-national perspective: Initial comparisons, Civil Society Working Paper 10, London School of Economics and Johns Hopkins University. Available from https://core.ac.uk/ download/pdf/96232.pdf [Accessed 05.03.2023]. Allison, H. (2021) ‘Virtual Volunteering’ a blog page on the website of Lancaster University, available from https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/careers/blogs/virtual-­ volunteering [Accessed 14.02.2023]. Arts University Bournemouth (2023) ‘Volunteer Information’, a page on the website of the Arts University Bournemouth, available from https://www.aubsu. co.uk/community/volunteer/agreement/ [Accessed 12.04.2023]. 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