5.DICTATORSHIPS IN EUROPE THE EMERGENCY OF DICTATORSHIP AFTER WORLD WAR ONE IN ITALY AND GERMANY 1918 – 1939 BENITO AMILCARE ANDREA MUSSOLINI (BENITO MUSSOLINI) - Mussolini was born on 29 July 1883 and died on 28 April 1945 at the age of 61. He was the head of government of Italy from 24 December 1925 to 25 July 1943. Besides being a dictator, he was once a novelist, teacher and journalist. He led the National Fascist party and has been credited with being one of the key architects/figures in the creation of fascism. He was the dictator of Italy from 1930 to 1943, having destroyed all political opposition through his secret police and having outlawed workers to go on strike. FACTORS BEHIND MUSSOLINI’S RISE Inflation High unemployment General discontent resulting from the peace settlement (VERSAILLES). Use of propaganda made him appear a success. Use of violence and crime. Weak coalition governments. Use of intimidation Fear of communism. Unpopularity of the Italian government. Oratory abilities. Poverty Strikes Hunger and starvation. SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN ITALY BETWEEN 1918 AND 1922 - Hunger and starvation. Unemployment The south was primitive and poor. High illiteracy (78%) No social security in industry. Common urban poverty. Crime very common. Rampant corruption. Prostitution. Domestic Violence. ECONOMIC PROBLEMS IN ITALY - Unemployment Low wages War Debts. Ageing factory machinery. Inflation Low agricultural production. WHY WAS MUSSOLINI ABLE TO COME TO POWER? - There was a general atmosphere of disillusionment and frustration in Italy by the summer of 1919, which were caused by a number of factors. 1. Disappointment at Italy’s gains from the peace settlement - - When she entered the war on the Allies’ side Italy was promised Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria, and Trieste, part of Dalmatia, Adalia, some Aegean Islands and a protectorate over Albania. She was given the first four areas and the rest were awarded to other states, mainly Yugoslavia. Albania was to be independent. The Italians felt cheated in view of their valiant (courageous) efforts during the war and the loss of 700 000men. Particularly irritating was their failure to get Fiume (given to Yugoslavia), though it had not been promised to them. 2. Effects of the war on the economy and the standard of living were disastrous. - - Heavy war debts had to be repaid to the USA. The decline in value of the Lira i.e. from 5 lira to one dollar ( 5: 1) in 1914 to 28 lira to one dollar ( 28 : 1) in 1921 increased the cost of living accordingly by at least five times. There was massive unemployment as heavy industry cut back its war time production levels. 2, 5 million ex-servicemen had difficulty finding jobs. 3. Growing contempt for the parliamentary system - - Votes for all men and proportional representation were introduced for the 1919 polls/elections. Although this gave a fairer representation than the previous system, it meant that there were a large number of parties in parliament. After the polls of May 1921 for example, there were at least nine political parties represented including the liberals, nationalists, socialists, communists, catholic popular party and the fascists. This made it difficult for any one party to gain an overall majority, and coalition governments were inevitable. No consistent policy was possible as five different cabinets with shaky majorities came and went. - There was growing impatience with a system which seemed designed to prevent decisive government. 4. A wave of strikes, 1919 and 1920 - - These were accompanied by rioting, looting of shops and occupation of factories by workers. In the south, socialist leagues of farm workers seized land from wealthy landowners and set- up co- operatives. The government’s prestige sank even lower because of its failure to protect property. Many property – owners were convinced that a left wing revolution was at hand, especially when the Italian communist party was formed in 1921. However, the chances of revolution were receding by then; strikes and factory occupations were fizzling out, because although workers tried to maintain production, claiming control of the factories, it proved impossible. Suppliers refused them raw materials and they needed engineers and managers. Although the formation of the communist party made a revolution less likely, the fear of a revolution remained strong. 5. Mussolini attracted widespread support - - - - - Mussolini and the fascist party were attractive to many sections of society because he aimed to rescue Italy from feeble/weak government. Mussolini had a varied early career, working for a time as a stonemason’s mate and then as a primary school teacher. Politically he was a socialist and began to make a name for himself as a journalist, becoming editor of the socialist newspaper, Avanti. He founded the fascist party in 1919 with a socialist and republican programme, and he showed sympathy with the factory occupations of 1919 – 20. Local party branches were known as Fasci di combattimento (fighting groups). The word “Fasces” means a bundle of rods with a protruding axe which was used to symbolize the authority and power of the ancient Roman Consuls/ Roman Empire. As factory occupations began to fail, Mussolini altered course and came out as a defender of private enterprise and property, hence attracting the much needed financial support from wealthy business interests. Beginning in late 1920, black shirted squads of fascists regularly attacked and burnt down local socialist headquarters and newspaper offices and beat up socialist councillors. By the end of 1921, Mussolini had gained the support of property owners in general, because they saw him as a guarantor of law and order, especially after the formation of the communist party in January 1921. Having won over big businesses, Mussolini began to make conciliatory speeches about the Roman Catholic Church that he had earlier criticized. Pope Pius 1 swung the church into line behind Mussolini, seeing him as a good anticommunist weapon. When Mussolini announced he had dropped the republican part of his programme in September 1922, even the king began to look more favourably on to the fascists. 6. Lack of effective opposition - - 7. Anti- fascist groups failed to co-operate with each other and made no determined efforts to keep the fascists out. Communists refused to co operate with the socialists. Giolitto, who was Prime Minister from June 1920 to July 1921 held polls of May 1921 so that the fascists who were still unrepresented in parliament, could win some seats and then support his government. He was willing to overlook their violence in the hope that they would become more responsible once they were in parliament. However, the number of fascist squads throughout the country was increasing rapidly. The socialists must take much of the blame for refusing to work with government to curb fascist violence. A coalition of Giolitto’s nationalist bloc and the socialists could have made reasonably stable government, hence keeping the fascists out. The socialists would not co- operate and this caused Giolitto to resign in despair. The socialists tried to use the situation to their own advantage/ for their own benefit by calling a general strike in the summer of 1922. The attempted general strike, summer 1922. - - - - - Fascists took advantage of it and announced that if the government failed to crush the strike, they would crush it themselves. When the strike failed due to lack of support, Mussolini was able to pose as the nation’s saviour from communism and by October 1922, the fascists felt confident enough to stage their “March on Rome.” About 50 000 black shirts converged on the capital, while others occupied important towns in the north. The Prime Minister, LuigFacta was prepared to resist. However, King Victor Emmanuel resisted to declare a state of emergency and instead, invited Mussolini to come to Rome and form a new government, which he obligingly did, arriving by train. Afterwards, the fascists claimed the belief that they had seized power heroically, but it had been achieved legally by the mere threat of force, while the army and police stood aside. The role of the king was vital because he made the crucial decision not to use the army to stop or crush the Black Shirts. Many historians believes that the regular army would have had little difficulty in dispersing the disorderly and poorly armed squad, many of whom arrived by train. The march was an enormous bluff which came off. Reasons why the king decided against armed resistance remain a mystery, since he was not willing to discuss them. Suggestions: i) Lack of confidence in Facta (the PM) ii) Doubts about whether the army with its fascist sympathies could be relied on to obey orders. . iii) Fear of a long civil war if it failed to crush the fascists quickly. - There is no doubt that the king had a certain amount of faith and sympathy with the fascist aim of providing strong government. He was also afraid that some of the generals could force him to abdicate in favour of his cousin, the Duke of Aosta, who openly supported the fascists. Whatever the king’s motives, the outcome was clear: Mussolini became the first ever fascist premier in history. MUSSOLINI’S DOMESTIC POLICY 1. All politically parties except the Fascist were suppressed i) ii) iii) - Persistent opponents of the regime were either exiled or murdered. The most notorious cases were those of two socialists, GiacomoMatteotti and Giovanni Amendola, both of whom were beaten to death by fascist thugs. Critics of the regime were force to eat live frogs. However, the Italian system was never as brutal as the Nazi regime in Germany, and after 1926 when Mussolini Felt more secure, violence was much reduced. Further changes in the constitution included: The Prime Minister (Mussolini) was responsible only to the king and not to parliament (1925). The Prime Minister could rule by decree which meant that new laws did not need to be discussed by parliament.(1926) The electorate was reduced from about 10 million to 3 million (the wealthiest). Although parliament still met, all vital decisions were taken by the Fascist Grand Council which always did as Mussolini told it. In effect Mussolini, who adopted the title Il Duce (the leader), was a dictator. 2. Passing of the Acerbo Law, November 1923 - The Acerbo Law changed the rules of general polls. From 1923 onwards, the party which got the most votes in a general election would automatically be given two thirds of seats in parliament. As a result of the next election in April 1924, the fascists and their supporters came out with 404 seats while the opposition parties could manage only a paltry 107seats. The right wing success can be explained by the general desire for a strong government which would put the country back on its feet again, after the weak minority governments of the preceding years. 3. Changes in local government - Elected town councils and mayors were abolished and towns were run by officials appointed from Rome. In practice, the local fascist party bosses (known as ras) often had as much power as government officials. The OVRA (secret police) were also introduced and used to arrest, torture or even murder critics and opponents of the regime. 4. Press censorship - Strict press censorship of television, radio and newspapers was enforced. Anti- fascist newspapers and magazines were either banned or their editors were replaced by fascist supporters. Radio, films and the theatre were all controlled in the same manner. 5. Education supervised/ control of education - Education in schools and universities was closely supervised/monitored. Teachers had to were uniforms New textbooks were written to glorify fascism. Children were encouraged to criticize teachers who seemed to lack enthusiasm/ support for the party. Children and young people were forced to join government youth organizations which indoctrinated them with the brilliance of the Duce and the glories of war. The other main message was total obedience to authority which was necessary because everything was seen in terms of struggle. “Believe, Obey, Fight” became the slogan. The notion/ belief that the Duce is always right was promoted. 6. Employment policies - - Government tried to promote co- operation between employers and workers and to end class warfare. The corporate state was introduced. Fascist – controlled unions had the sole right to negotiate for the workers. Both unions and employers’ associations were organized into corporations, and were expected to work together to settle disputes over pay/salaries and working conditions. Strikes were forbidden. By 1934, there were 22 corporations each dealing with a separate industry and in this way Mussolini hoped to control workers and direct production and economy. To compensate for their loss of freedom, workers were assured of such benefits as free Sundays, annual holidays with pay e.t.c. 7. An understanding with the Pope was reached. - - Pope Pius XI disapproved the increasing totalitarianism of the fascist government though he had been sympathetic towards Mussolini in 1922. The fascist youth organizations clashed with the catholic scouts. Mussolini, who was probably an atheist himself, was well aware of the power of the Roman Catholic Church and he tried to win the Pope’s support. The result was the Lateran Treaty of 1929 in which Italy recognized the Vatican City as a sovereign state. He paid the Pope a large sum of money as compensation for all his losses, accepted Catholic faith as the official state religion and made religions instruction compulsory in all schools. In return, the Papacy (Pope) recognized the kingdom of Italy. - Some historians have described the ending of the long enemity between the church and the state as Mussolini’s most lasting achievement. 8. Land reclamation programme - This involved the draining of marshes ((wet low- lying grounds), planting forests in mountainous areas, again as part of the drive to improve and increase agricultural yields. The greatest showpiece was the claimed Pontine Marshes near Rome. Government posts held by Mussolini - Prime Minister Foreign Affairs Minister Minister of the interior/ Home Affairs Minister. Minister of corporations Commander in chief of the militia Minister of army, navy and air force President of the Fascist Grand Council. HOW FAR DID MUSSOLINI’S DOMESTIC POLICY POSITION IN ITALY - STRENGTHEN HIS The policy was geared mainly at enhancing Fascist rule and Mussolini’s position in Italy From 1922 to 1923, Mussolini headed a coalition government as Prime Minister, Foreign Minister and Home Affairs Minister. In 1923, he changed the Electoral law by passing the Acerbo law. Italy became a one party state and all opposition was removed Abolition of anti- fascist parties and trade unions meant that Mussolini assumed rule by decree. The introduction of a corporate state under a fascist chair meant that Mussolini had control over workers and employees. Mussolini ensure that certain groups were either favoured or appeased and this helped him to maintain his hold on the Italian people. However, Mussolini’s domestic policy created fear among the Italians. Opposition was still there and it resulted in his death as we shall see later. Unemployment was still there e.g. after the Great Depression unemployment rose to 1,1million. DID MUSSOLINI DICTATORSHIP BENEFIT ITALIANS DURING THIS PERIOD? - Dictatorship ensured peace and stability in Italy. - The Lateran treaty ended a long misunderstanding between the Roman Catholic Church and the state. - The banning of strikes, lockouts and demonstrations promoted a peaceful environment which was vital for economic development. - Dictatorship promoted a sense of nationalism. - The Ovra (secret police) was effectively used to suppress opposition thereby ensuring peace and order. - However, civil and political rights were suppressed, so people lived in perpetual fear and could no longer freely express themselves. - A lot of property and life was lost due to violence. - Workers were heavily exploited under a corporate state. - Parliament was turned into a farce because the Prime Minister could rule by decree i.e. new laws did not need to be discussed in Parliament. EVALUATION OF MUSSOLINI’S DOMESTIC IN DEALING WITH SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS - What really mattered to the ordinary people was whether the regime’s policies were effective or not. Did Mussolini rescue Italy from weak government as he had promised, or was he, as some of his critics alleged at the time, just a windbag whose government was just as corrupt and inefficient as previous ones? a) A promising beginning - Much of fascist policy was concerned with the economy, though Mussolini knew every little about economics. The big drive was for self- sufficiency and the early years seemed to be successful, or so as the government propaganda told people. 1. Industry was encouraged with government subsidies where necessary, so that iron and steel production doubled by 1930 and artificial silk production increased tenfold. By 1937, production of hydro-electric power had doubled. 2. The” Battle of wheat” encouraged farmers to concentrate on wheat production as part of the drive for self – sufficiency and by 1935 wheat imports had been reduced by 75%. 3. A land reclamation programmewas launched. It involved the draining of marshes, irrigating and planting of forests in mountainous areas. This was part of the drive to improve and increase agricultural yields. A lot of unemployed people were absorbed as a result. 4. An impressive public works programmewas designed among other things to reduce unemployment. It included the building of motorways, bridges, blocks of flats, railway stations, sports stadiums, schools and new towns on reclaimed land. A start was made on electrifying main railway lines and the great fascist boast was that Mussolini had made the trains run on time. Even sportsmen did well under fascism. The Italian soccer team won the world cup twice in 1934 and 1938! 5. The after work (Dopolavoro) organization provided the Italian people with things to do in their leisure time. There were cheap holidays, tours and cruises, and Dopolavoro also controlled theatres, drama societies, libraries, orchestras, brass bands and sporting organization 6. To promote the image of Italy as a great power, a virile (strong) foreign policy was carried out. - However, the promise of the early years of Mussolini’s rule was in many ways never fulfilled b) Unsolved problems - Even before Italy became involved in the Second World War, It was clear that Fascism had not solved many of her problems 1. Little had been done to remedy her basic shortage of raw materials coal and oil much more effort could have been made to develop hydro- electric power. An iron and steel producer Italy could not even match a small state like Belgium. 2. Although the (“battle of wheat”) was a victory, it was achieved only at the expense of dairy and arable framing whose output fell. The climate in the south is much better suited to grazing and orchards than growing wheat and this would have been more lucrative for farmers. - As result, agriculture remained inefficient and farm labourers remained the poorest class in the country. - Their wages fell by between 20% and 40%, during the 1930s - Italy still had what is known as a ‘dualist’ economy i.e. the north was industrial and reasonably prosperous, while the south was largely agricultural, backward and poverty – stricken. - The attempt at self – sufficiency had dismally failed. 3. Mussolini revalued the lira far too high at 90 to the pound instead of 150 in 1926. - It was an attempt to show that Italy had a strong currency. Unfortunately this made Italian exports more expensive on the world market and led to reduced orders, especially in the cotton industry. Many factories were on a three – day week and workers suffered wage reductions of between 10 and 20%, before the world economic crisis which began in 1929. 4. The great depression of 1929 starting with the Wall Street crash in USA made matters worse. - - Exports fell further, unemployment rose to 1,1million yet the Duce refused to devalue the lira until 1936. Instead wages and salaries were cut, and although the cost of living was falling because of the Depression, wages fell more than prices, so workers suffered a fall of over 10% in real wages. Industrial workers were heavily annoyed as they had no way of protesting since strikes were illegal and unions weak. 5. The regime also failed in social services where there was no official government health insurance until 1943 and only an inadequate unemployment insurance scheme, which was not even improved during the depression. - 6. The regime was inefficient and corrupt as many of its policies were not carried out. Inspite of all the publicity about land reclamation only about one- tenth of the programme had been done by 1939 and work was at a standstill even before the war began. Huge/ large sums of money disappeared into the pockets of corrupt officials Part of the problem was that Mussolini increasingly tried to do everything himself He refused to delegate because he wanted total control. However, it was impossible for one man to do so much, and it placed an intolerable burden on him. Dennis Mack Smith, his biographer said it all; “By trying to control everything, he ended up controlling very little. Although he gave a constant stream of orders, he had no way of checking that these were carried out and as officials knew this, they often only pretended to obey, and / but took no action after all. ECONOMIC POLICIES OF MUSSOLINI IN ITALY AFTER 1922 - Industry was encouraged with government subsidies. The battle for wheat encouraged farmers to concentrate on wheat production to attain self – sufficiency (autarky) Land reclamation involving draining of marshes, irrigation and planting forests was launched. Public works programs e.g. electrification, road construction, bridges, railway stations and sports stadiums were designed. The lira was revalued. Strikes were outlawed/ banned. Trade unions were suppressed and replaced with corporations. There was expansion of silk and steel production. Production of hydro-electric power doubled. Evaluation of Mussolini’s economic policies 1. Benefits - Stabilization of prices through the lowering of wages and suppression of strikes and trade unions. The government fixed rentals and controlled food prices hence making up for low wages. The lira was revalued so it could buy more. - Non-benefits - There was a massive shortage of basic goods due to the introduction of price controls. Unemployment was not fully addressed. Rampant corruption and inefficiency continue unabated. MUSSOLINI’S FOREIGN POLICY - Mussolini wanted to make Italy great, respected and feared, but he was not sure on how to achieve this. At first, he seemed to think of an adventurous foreign policy as his best line of action, hence the Corfu Incident and the occupation of Fiume in 1923. Initially, Mussolini depended on diplomacy to protect Italy especially from possible German influence via Austria. In 1923, Italy invaded the Greek island of Corfu after four Italians had been killed due to a border dispute between Greece and Albania. In 1924, an agreement was reached with the new state of Yugoslavia over Fiume. In 1925, Mussolini signed the Locarno Pact with Britain, France, Germany and Belgium. Mussolini provided arms and money to keep Dollfuss, Chancellor of Austria independent of Germany. Mussolini mobilized troops at the Brenner Pass to avenge the murder of Dollfuss and stop Hitler from annexing Austria. In 1925, he attended the Locarno Conference but was disappointed when the agreements signed did not guarantee the Italian frontier with Austria. In 1935, he invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) to avenge the Italian defeat at Adowa in 1896. In April 1935, Mussolini joined the British and the French in condemning German action and guaranteeing Austria i.e. the Stressa Front. Both Britain and France carefully avoided mentioning the Abyssinian crisis which was already brewing. Mussolini took this to mean that they would turn a blind eye to an Italian attack on Abyssinia, regarding it as a bit of old-fashioned colonial expansion. Mussolini cultivated good relations with Britain by supporting Britain’s demand that Turkey should hand over the Mosul province to Iraq. In return, the British gave Italy a small part of Somaliland. He sent troops to help General Franco in the Spanish civil war and this drew Mussolini away from Britain and France and closer to Germany. In 1936, Mussolini effectively formed a protectorate over Albania to offset Yugoslavian influence. In 1937, Mussolini joined the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany and Japan. In December 1937, Mussolini withdrew from the League of Nations. He signed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Hitler in 1936. In 1937, he signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis with Germany and Japan. In 1938, Hitler invaded Austria but Mussolini did not object as he had previously done. In 1939, Italy invaded Albania. In 1939, Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel with Germany and it was a full alliance. During World War Two, Mussolini decided to wait, supporting no side up to 1941. How did Italians benefit from Mussolini’s Foreign Policy? - Italian trade prospered. Mussolini’s prestige was strengthened at home after the Corfu Incident. Italians were made to think that they were senior partners in the alliance between Germany, Italy and Japan. - Employment was created. However, cheap booty was obtained in Abyssinia, Somalia, Dalmatia and Southern France and this made Italy join World War Two on Germany’s side. Mussolini’s foreign policy created more enemies than friends. Ignoring domestic issues and concentrating on foreign affairs led to misallocation and misappropriation of resources. Many Italians lost their lives during battles. Many children were orphaned and women lost their husbands. How did Hitler influence Mussolini’s Foreign Policy? - Initially, Mussolini’s foreign policy was determined by Italian interests and aims. The Corfu incident was designed to advance national greatness in foreign affairs. Fiume and Albania were aimed at illustrating Italy’s greatness and to gain control over the entry into the Adriatic Sea. Abyssinia and Albania were meant to fulfill Italy’s colonial interests. However, Germany attempted Anschluss with Austria in 1934 was strongly opposed by Mussolini. After the Axis agreement, Mussolini became a protégé of Hitler. There was mutual co-operation between the two countries e.g. helping Franco in Spanish civil War, Rome-Berlin Axis, Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, and Anti-Comintern, Pact of steel e.t.c. ADOLF HITLER OF GERMANY. Brief History: Adolf Hitler of Germany - Hitler was born in 1889 in the small Austrian town of Braun am Inn. Hitler began school in 1900 and his grades were above average. It was decided that he would attend Realschule, a secondary school that prepared students for further study. However, Hitler and his father strongly differed about career plans. His father wanted him to enter the civil service; Hitler insisted on becoming an artist. - - As a result, Hitler did poorly in Realschule, having to repeat the first year and improving little thereafter. During this time, Hitler began to form his political views: a strong sense of German nationalism, the beginnings of anti-Semitism, and distaste for the ruling family and political structure of Austria-Hungary. The death of Hitler’s father in January 1903 changed the family drastically. The survivors’ income was inadequate to support Hitler, his mother and sister, but the absence of a dominant father figure altered Hitler’s position in the family. He spent much time playing and dreaming, did poorly in his studies and left school entirely in 1905 after the equivalent of the ninth grade. Rise of the Nazi Party - The situation in Germany provided a fertile ground for the rise of extreme nationalist parties such as the NAZI. The main factors behind the rise of the NAZI Party included: (i) NAZIs promised to end economic problems. (ii) NAZIs promised restoration of national pride and to bring law and order. (iii) NAZIs had a private army which attracted young men. (iv) NAZ’s offered national unity, prosperity and full employment. (v) More so, the NAZIs promised to end reparations and ignore the Versailles Treaty. - The capitalists and rich people supported Nazism because they feared communism. - Adolf Hitler was a good orator who used this gift effectively to convince people. Rise of Hitler 1920-1933 - In 1920, Hitler joined Germany Workers Party (NAZI). He became the leader in 1921. In 1921, the Storm Troopers (SS) was created as a private army to fight Hitler’s opponents. In 1923, Hitler attempted to get power by force through the aborted Munich Putsch or Beer hall Putsch. The Beer hall Putsch. - In November 1923, Hitler marched to municipal buildings with 600 of his members, taking advantage of economic difficulties in Germany. The attempt failed and he was arrested. Hitler was sentenced to five years in prison but was released after 9months because the authorities had a lot of sympathy with his aims. While in prison, Hitler wrote his famous book, Mein Kampf (My Struggle) spelling out NAZI ideology. The Munich Putsch was a failure but it made him realize that force alone could not bring him to power. Hitler began to reach out to people through propaganda and participation in elections. In the 1924 polls, NAZI party got 14 seats in the Reichstag (Germany Parliament). Between 1926 and 1929, Nazi support went down because the Germany economy was doing well under Chancellor Stresemann. - In 1928, the NAZI’s got 12 seats. The Great Depression of 1929 increased support for the NAZI’s and in the 1930 polls they got 107 seats becoming the largest second party in Reichstag. In 1932 polls, Hitler challenged President Hindenburg. In 1934, President Hindenburg died and Hitler became Chancellor and President i.e. the Fuhrer. Hitler’s Domestic Policy - In 1933, he passed the Enabling Law allowing him to pass laws without the approval of the Reichstag. Elections were banned and all political parties were also banned except the Nazi party. Trade Unions were banned and replaced with the German Labour Front. Strikes and demonstrations were outlawed. The education system was strictly monitored by the NAZI party. New books were printed to reflect NAZI ideology, human biology dominated Nazi race theory i.e. belief in the Supremacy of the Aryan race. Teachers, lectures and professors were closely monitored and wore uniforms School children were urged to spy on their teachers. Boys were forced to join Hitler Youth Movement at the age of 14 while girls joined German Maidens singing “Hitler is always right”. The Gestapo i.e. Nazi secret police was introduced to arrest Nazi opponents. All communications were heavily censored i.e. radio, film, newspapers and theatre. Joseph Gobbels became the Minister of Propaganda Religion was brought under state control. Catholicism became the religion. The Night of Long Knives resulted in the death of Hitler’s close associates because he feared they were becoming too powerful. Anti-Semitism resulted in the death of millions of Jews as Hitler wanted pure Germans (Aryan race) only to live in Germany. Jews lost their citizenship right in Germany, were not allowed to work as civil servants, doctors, own a radio or operate a business. Public works programs increased employment. New industries to manufacture textiles, synthetic rubber and fuel were created due to economic growth. Hitler’s Foreign Policy 1. 2. 3. Hitler’s foreign policy was built on three main aims namely: To destroy or reverse the hated Versailles treaty To create a “Greater Germany” by uniting all German speaking people. The creation of Lebensraum - living space for the German people. Summary: Treaty of Versailles - The Germany Army was limited to 100 000 men. Germany had to pay reparations Germany had to accept War Guilt Clause 231. Germany lost 13% of her territories and all her colonies Lebensraum - Hitler’s Greater Germany would have a population of over 85million people. Germany’s land would be insufficient to feed many people. Hitler wanted to expand eastwards towards Poland and Russia. The Russians and Poles were slaves whom Hitler believed to be inferior hence Germany was entitled to take their land. Hitler wanted a single homeland for all Germany union with Austria. FOREIGN POLICY IN DETAIL - - - In 1933, Hitler made it clear that he was going to rearm the Reich at whatever cost. Hitler withdrew German’s representatives at the disarmament conference in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1934, he signed German-Polish Pact break up France’s encirclement of Germany. In July 1934, Hitler suffered a serious setback to his ambitious of an Anschluss (union) between Germany and Austria. The Austrian Nazis, encouraged by Hitler, staged a revolt and murdered the Austrian Chancellor, Engelbert Dollfuss, who had been supported by Mussolini. However, when Mussolini moved Italian troops to the Austrian frontier and warned the Germans to back off, the revolt collapsed. Hitler had to accept that Germany was not yet strong enough to force the issue, and he denied responsibility for the actions of Austrian Nazis. In January 1935, the Saar was returned to Germany after a plebiscite resulting in a 90% vote in favour. Though this had been provided for in the peace settlement, Nazi propaganda made the most of success. In March 1935, Hitler announced the existence of Luftwaffe (Germany Air Force) and the reintroduction of conscription, in violation of Versailles. His excuse was that Britain had just announced air force increases and France had extended conscription from 12 to 18 months, their justification being German rearmament. Much to their alarm, Hitler told his startled generals and the rest of the world that he would build up his peacetime army to 36 divisions i.e. about 600 000 men. The generals did not have to be worried: although the Stressa Front condemned this violation of Versailles, no action was taken; the League was helpless, and the Front collapsed as a result of Hitler’s next success. In June 1935, Hitler signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement allowing him to have a navy. Hitler offered to limit the German navy to 35% of the strength of the British navy. Britain eagerly accepted, seemingly thinking that since Germany was already breaking Versailles by building a fleet, it would be as well to have it limited. Without consulting her allies, Britain had condoned Germany re-armament, which went ahead with gathering momentum. By the end of 1938, the army stood at 51 divisions (about 800 000 men) plus reserves. There were 21 large naval vessels (battleships, cruisers and destroyers), many more were under construction and 47 U-boats. A large air force (Luftwaffe) of over 5000 had been built up. - - - In March 1936, Hitler took the calculated risk of sending Germany troops into the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland and Britain took no action despite the fact that this was a violation of both Versailles and offering a peace treaty to last for 25years. Later in 1936, Hitler consolidated Germany’s position by reaching an understanding with Mussolini, signing the Rome-Berlin Axis. He signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan which was also joined by Italy in 1937. He sent troops to help General Franco who was fighting a civil war against the Spanish government as a way of testing weapons, increasing friends and gaining military experience. One of the most notorious exploits of this war was the bombing of the defenseless Basque market town of Guernica by the German Condor Legion. In 1938, Hitler announced the Anschluss i.e. Germany union with Austria. In 1938, Nazi forces occupied / took over Sudetenland from the Czechs. They later occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia and Hitler took control of the Skoda arms factory which strengthened his military. Hitler attacked Poland on 1 September 1939 in violation of the non-aggression pact signed earlier on. Hitler, over the years had built up an aggressive foreign policy and German nationals to prepare for war. The Pact of Steel signed with Italy was meant to assist each other in the event of war. He signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis which was meant to fight international Communism. After the Anschluss of 1938, Hitler issued propaganda to the world about the persecution of Nazi followers in Austria. He demanded that a pro-Nazi be made Chancellor, to which Austria refused. Nazi troops moved into Austria without resistance. Hitler announced that the two nations were one. APPEASEMENT - - A policy followed by the British and later by the French, of avoiding war with aggressive powers such as Japan, Italy and Germany, by agreeing to their demands, provided they were not too unreasonable. Neville Chamberlain was the British Prime Minister who negotiated with Hitler in 1938. LANDMARKS OF APPEASEMENT - In 1933, Germany left the League of Nations and started to rearm in secret. In 1935, Germany announced conscription after the Anglo-Germany naval agreement and the Abyssinian Crisis In 1936, the Rhineland was remilitarized. March 1938, the Anschluss. September 1938, Sudetenland crisis and Munich Agreement. In 1939, Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia. In 1939 again, Britain and France abandoned appeasement and guaranteed to defend Poland. RESULTS OF APPEASEMENT - - Europe was saved from war possibly though some historians argue that if the Czechs, French, British and Russians had stood up to Hitler, he would have been defeated, and would have faced war on two fronts. Czechoslovakia was weakened by the loss of vital military defenses and resources. Germany gained the Sudetenland, another step towards Greater Germany. Britain and France gained time to build up their armed forces, but so did Germany. Hitler decided Britain and France were unlikely ever to oppose him by force. Stalin was offended at being excluded from the talkS and decided that he could not rely on Britain to help/assist the USSR stand up against Germany. 6.THE SECOND WORLD WAR 1939-1945 1. Causes of the war 2. Course of the war: Opening moves : Operation Sea-lion : Operation Barbarossa Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 3. Results/effects of war CAUSES OF WW2 1. The Versailles Treaty has been blamed for filling the Germans with bitterness and the desire for revenge due to the fact that the provisions were deemed too harsh for the defeated powers and also because the treaties were viewed by the Germans as favouring the Victors’ club i.e. the Allied Powers. 2. The League of Nations and the idea of collective security have been criticized because they failed to secure general disarmament and to control potential aggressors. Furthermore the League was viewed as a “toothless bulldog” which “had been tried but found wanting”. 3. The world economic crisis/Great depression of 1929 enabled Hitler to come to power as he was viewed as the “Messiah” who could rescue Germany out of the Great Slump which affected most nations. Hitler was a good and great orator who used his oratory skills to persuade and motivate people to support his ideas. 4. Appeasement was equally to blame as other historians argue that Britain and France should have taken a firm line with Hitler before Germany had become too strong. - An Anglo- French attack on Western Germany in 1936 at time of the Rhineland occupation would have taught Hitler a lesson and might have toppled him from power. - By giving way to Hitler’s demands and actions, the appeasers increased his prestige at home. - Success and the absence of resistance tempted Hitler as he might not have not have had definite plans for war but after the surrender at Munich, he decided to gamble on war with Poland. - Chamberlain has also been criticized for choosing the wrong issue over which to make a stand with Hitler. - - It is argued that Germany claims for Danzig routes across the corridor were more reasonable than her demands for the Sudetenland which contained almost a million nonGermans. Poland was difficult for Britain and France to defend and was militarily much weaker than Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain hence should have made his stand at Munich and backed the Czechs. Chamberlain’s defenders claim that his main motive at Munich was to give Britain time to rearm for an eventual fight against Hitler. However, his critics pointed out that if he had genuinely intended to curb Hitler, it would have been better for Britain to have fought alongside Czechoslovakia, which was militarily and industrially strong. 5. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (Russia) has been accused of making war inevitable by signing the non-aggression pact with Germany. - It is argued that she ought to have allied with the West and with Poland, thus frightening Hitler into keeping peace. - However, the British were most reluctant to ally with the Russians. - Like the Poles, Chamberlain looked down upon them because they were communists and he thought they were militarily weak. - Russian historians justify the pact on the grounds that it gave the USSR time to prepare its defenses against a possible German attack. 6. The Spanish civil war provided Hitler, with a fertile ground to test new weapons, increase friends abroad and gain military experience which would be useful in his future plans of conquering the world and destroying powerful nations such as Britain and Russia. 7. The Acts of Aggression committed by the dictators were the matchsticks that lit the bonfire. - German’s invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 culminated in various declarations of war by nations in support of either party i.e. Germany or Poland. - Further invasions of Denmark, Norway in April 1940, Holland, Belgium and France on 10 May 1940 left most nations without an option but to fight for their allies who had been attacked by the dictators or who had the potential to be attacked. COURSE OF THE WAR - - Unlike the 1914-1918 war, the Second World War was a rapid movement and was a much more complex affair, with major battles in the far East, in North Africa and Pacific and the heart of Russia, as well as in central and Western Europe and the Atlantic. The war falls into four fairly clearly defined phases which are as follows: 1. Opening moves: September 1939 to December 1940 2. The Axis offensives widens: 1941 to summer 1942 3. The offensives held in check: Summer 1942 to summer 1943 4. The Axis powers defeated : July 1943 to August 1945 1. OPENING MOVES: SEPTEMBER 1939 TO DECEMBER 1940 (a) POLAND DEFEATED - The Poles were defeated because of the German Blitzkrieg (lightning war) which they were ill–equipped to deal with. - - It consisted of rapid thrust by motorized divisions and tanks (Panzers) supported by air power. The Luftwaffe (German Air Force) put the Polish railway system out of action and destroyed the Polish air force. Polish resistance was heroic but hopeless because they had no motorized divisions to stop advancing German tanks. Britain and France did little to help their ally directly because French mobilization procedure was slow and out-of-date, and it was difficult to transport sufficient troops to Poland to be effective. When the Russians invaded Eastern Poland, resistance collapsed totally. On 29 September 1939, Poland was divided up between Germany and the USSR as agreed in the Nazi-Soviet Pact of August 1939. c) THE “PHONEY WAR” - Very little happened in the West for the following five months. In the east, the Russians took over Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and invaded Finland in November 1939, forcing her to surrender frontier territories thus enabling the Russians to defend themselves better against any attack from the West. - The French and Germans manned their respective defenses i.e. the Maginot and Siegfred. - Hitler hoped that the pause would weaken the British and French and encourage them to negotiate peace. - The lack of action pleased Hitler’s generals, who were unconvinced that the Germany army was strong enough to attack in the West. - It was the American press which described this period as the “phoney war” i.e. a period when enemies were officially at war but not actively engaged in armed conflict, e.g. the period of relative calm at the beginning of World War II d) DENMARK AND NORWAY INVADED, APRIL 1940 - - Hitler’s troops occupied Denmark and landed at the main Norwegian ports on 9April 1940. The invasion was aimed at securing the North sea Route which was used for shipping Swedish iron-ore when the Baltic was frozen. Germany wanted control because Narvick was the main outlet for Swedish iron ore, which was vital for Germans armaments industry. When a British destroyer chased the German vessel, Altmark and rescued the 300 British prisoners abroad, Hitler decided it was time to act. On 9 April, the Germans landed at Oslo, Stavanger, Bergen and Trondheim. Although the British and French troops arrived a few days later, they were unable to dislodge the Germans, who were already well established. The Germans were assisted by the local Nazis under their leader, Vidkun Quisling who gave the invaders every assistance they needed. In these operations, the Germans used parachute troops to capture and immediately launched an expedition to Narvik and severely damaged Norwegian naval forces in the areas. Allied plans were ill co-ordinated and confused. The Germans made superior use of air power to support their land and naval forces. - The British had no air support, whereas the German air Force (Luftwaffe) constantly harassed the allies. The Norwegian campaign had vital results: (i) Germany was assured of her bases and her iron ore supplies, but lost three cruisers and ten destroyers. This made the Germany navy less effective than it might have been. (ii) It showed the incompetence of Chamberlain’s government. Chamberlain was forced to resign and Winston Churchill became British Prime Minister. Denmark fell without fighting and Norway fell after two months. - - IMPORTANCE OF INVASIONS TO THE GERMANS - The invasions safeguarded iron-ore supplies from Sweden. It was a morale booster. More military bases were created in invaded areas. They caused panic to British leadership e.g. the resignation of Chamberlain. Britain and France lost Norwegian ports and airfields to the Germans. However, the invasions were still in the beginning so it was too early to assume decide the outcome as later followed e.g. Operation Sealion, Operation Barbarossa etc. (c) HITLER ATTACKS HOLLAND, BELGIUM AND FRANCE - Attacks on Holland, Belgium and France were launched simultaneously on 10 May and again Blitzkrieg (lighting war) methods brought swift victories. The Dutch, shaken by the bombing of Rotterdam which killed almost a thousand people, surrendered after only four days. Belgium held out longer, but her surrender at the end of May Left the British and French in Belgium previously exposed as German motorized divisions swept across Northern France and only Dunkirk remained in Allied hands. The British navy played a pivotal role in evacuating over 338 000 troops, two thirds (2/3) of them British, from Dunkirk between 27 May and 4 June. This was a remarkable achievement in the face of constant Luftwaffe attacks on the beaches. Events at Dunkirk were vital because a third of a million Allied troops were rescued to fight again and Churchill used it for propaganda purposes to boost British morale with the “Dunkirk spirit.” It was a serious blow for all their arms and equipment, so it became impossible for Britain to help France. The Germans swept southwards and Paris was captured on 14 June and France surrendered on 22June. Due to Hitler’s insistence, the armistice (cease fire) was signed at Compiegne in the same railway coach that had been used for the 1918 armistice. Germans occupied Northern France and the Atlantic coast, giving them valuable submarine bases, and the French army was demobilized. - - - OPERATION SEA-LION (12 AUGUST TO 30 SEPTEMBER 1940) - Operation Sea lion was the codename given to the planned invasion of Great Britain/England in 1940 by Hitler. Hitler laid out four conditions that had to be met to ensure success. These included: i. ii. iii. iv. - The elimination of the Royal Air Force (RAF) to ensure air superiority. Clearing of the English Channel of mines and the laying of German mines. The emplacing of artillery along the English Channel. Preventing the Royal Navy from interfering with the landings. This was fought in the air, when Goering’s Luftwaffe tried to destroy the RAF as a preliminary to the invasion of Britain. The Germans bombed harbours; radar stations, aerodromes and ammunitions factories. In September, they began to bomb London, in retaliation for a British raid on Berlin as the Germans claimed. The RAF inflicted heavy losses on the Luftwaffe (1389 German planes were lost against 792 British planes). When it became clear that British air power was far from being destroyed, Hitler called of the invasion. Reasons/motives for the British success were i. Their chain of new radar stations gave plenty of warning of approaching German attackers. ii. German bombers were armed and were hampered by limited range as they could only carry enough fuel to enable them to stay in the air for about 90 minutes. iii. The switch to bombing London was a mistake because it relieved pressure on the airfields at the critical moments. SIGNIFICANCE OF OPERATION SEA-LION - For the first time, the Germans had been checked and so they were not invincible. Britain was able to remain in the struggle, hence facing Hitler (who was about to attack Russia) with the fatal situation of war on two fronts. The efficiency of the Luftwaffe was severely compromised. MUSSOLINI INVADES EGYPT, SEPTEMBER 1940 - - Not wanting to be outdone by Hitler, Mussolini sent an army from the Italian colony of Libya which penetrated about 60miles into Egypt in September 1940, while Italian army invaded Greece from Albania in October 1940. However, the British soon drove the Italians out of Egypt, pushed them at Bedaform, capturing 130 000 prisoners and 400 tanks. The Greeks forced the Italians back and invaded Albania. Mussolini was beginning to be an embarrassment to Hitler. OPERATION BARBAROSSA - Operation Barbarossa was the codename given to the invasion of Russia by Hitler on 22 June 1941. Barbarossa was the largest military attack of World War Two and was to have appalling consequences for the Russians. Three army groups namely Army Groups North, Center and South attacked Russia on 22 June 1941. Russia was defended by four army units. - The attack started at 0300hours, Sunday morning 22 June 1941. In total, German and her allies used 3million soldiers, 3580 tanks, 7184 artillery guns, 1830 planes and 750 000 horses. Hitler’s motives seem to have been mixed because of: i. Fear that the Russians might attack Germany while she was still occupied in the West. ii. Hope that the Japanese would attack Russia in the Far East. iii. The more powerful Japan became, the less chance there was of the USA entering the war or so as Hitler thought. iv. Above all was his hatred of communism and his desire for Lebensraum (living space). Important cities such as Riga, Smolensk and Kiev were captured. The Russians had been caught off their guard still re-equipping their army and air force and their generals were inexperienced. However, the Germans failed to capture Leningrad and Moscow. They were severely hampered by the heavy rains of October which turned the Russian roads into mud, and by the severe frosts of November and December when in some places, the temperature fell to -38oC. The Germans had inadequate winter clothing because Hitler had anticipated the campaigns to be over before winter. In the spring of 1942, no progress was made in the north and centre as Hitler decided to concentrate on seizing the Caucasus oil fields. - - - RUSSIAN CITIES ATTACKED BY GERMANY DURING WORLD WAR TWO - Kiev Kursk Stalingrad Leningrad Minsk Rostov JAPANESE ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOR - - Japan was Germany’s only ally in the east. The USA was brought into the war by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (their naval base in the Hawaiian Islands) on 7 December 1941. Until then, the Americans, who had not entered the war on either side, had remained neutral though after the Lend-Lease Act of April 1941, they had provided Britain with massive financial aid. The attack was brilliantly organized by Admiral Yamatato. There was no declaration of war. 353 Japanese planes arrived undetected at Pearl Harbor and in two hours, they destroyed 350 aircraft and 5 battleships. 3700 men were killed or seriously injured. President Roosevelt called 7 December 1941 a date which will live in infamy. Pearl Harbor had vital results: i. ii. It gave Japan control of the Pacific, and by May 1942 they had captured Malaya, Singapore, Hong Kong and Burma e.t.c It caused Hitler to declare war on the USA. THE HOLOCAUST - - - - - This was the almost complete destruction of Jews in Europe by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during WW2 (1939-1945). The leadership of Germany’s Nazi Party ordered the extermination of 5,6 to 5,9 million Jews. The Holocaust was the worst genocide in history. Those who carried it out methodically created the means to efficiently round up and kill millions of people. Many harbored a prejudice against Jews that is known as anti-Semitism. Jews were accused of having accepted the harsh and cruel Versailles treaty and were labeled “November criminals.” In the minds of anti- Semites, Jews represented mysterious, mythical and evil forces who played a sinister role in world history. Hitler, on the basis of his anti-Semitic views attacked the impressive role Jews had played in German society during the Weimar era and referred to them as a plague and a cancer. In Mein Kampf, Hitler blamed the plight of Germany at the end of WW1 on an international Jewish conspiracy and used terms such as extermination in relation to the Jews. Hitler claimed that Jews had achieved economic dominance and their own merit. He wrote of the need to eradicate their physical removal. On 1 April 1933, the Nazi party instigated a boycott of Jewish owned shops and Jewish professionals such as lawyers and doctors. On 7 April 1933, the Reichstag enacted a law that allowed the government to dismiss Jews from the German civil service. Later, quotas were adopted to limit the number of Jewish students. However, Hitler and the other Nazi leaders viewed these piecemeal regulations as insufficient, and so they decided to implement a comprehensive legal framework for their anti-Semitic policies. After the outbreak of WW2 in September 1939, the Nazis searched for what they termed a “final solution to the Jewish question.” Leaders of the SS were put in charge of solving “Jewish question.” All Jews who occupied official positions were interpreted to mean all adult Jews, who were immediately shot. In August 1941, the killings were expanded to include Jewish women and children. In the autumn of 1941, the Holocaust was extended to Jews in parts of Poland and Serbia. For these killings, Hitler used gas vans, specially sealed vans in which exhaust fumes from the engine were piped into a storage compartment filled with victims to asphyxiate them. In the spring of 1942, the intensive killing resumed to include Jewish slave Laborers. They used cyanide gas produced from Zyclone-B, the commercial name of a pesticide based on hydrocyanic acid. AMERICAN ENTRY INTO THE WAR America’s entry into the Second World War on the Allies’ side was chiefly caused by Japan’s bombing of Pearl Harbor and later by Hitler’s declaration of war on the USA. America’s entry boosted the Allies morale at a time when the chips were down. America brought in fresh soldiers, advanced weapons and brilliant new ideas, a feat that the Central Powers could in the Pacific (June 1942), the Americans beat off a powerful Japanese attack, which included five aircraft carriers, nearly 400 aircraft, 17 large warships and an invasion force of 5000 troops. The British, with only three carriers and 233 planes, destroyed four of the Japanese victory against heavier odds: i. They had broken all the Japanese radio code and knew exactly when and where the attack was to be launched. ii. The Japanese were over confident and made two fatal mistakes of: 1. Splitting their forces, hence allowing the Americans to concentrate on the main carrier force. 2. Attacking with aircraft from all carriers simultaneously, so that when they wereall rearming, the entire fleet was extremely vulnerable. At this juncture / stage, the Americans launched a counter attack by dive bombers which swooped unexpectedly from 19 000 feet, sinking two of the carriers and all of their planes. The Americans maintained their lead in carriers and aircraft, especially dive-bombers. The Americans under General MacArthur began to recover the Pacific Islands, beginning in August 1942 with landings on the Solomon Islands. The struggle was longer and bitter and bitter and continued through 1943 and 1944. - - - - BOMBING OF HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI - On 6 August 1945, the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima killing 75 000 people and leaving tens of thousands more slowly dying of radiation poison. 12 American navy fliers in Hiroshima city jail were also killed in the raid. On 9 August 1945, a second bomb (plutonium) was dropped on the city of Nagasaki killing nearly 40 000 people and destroying property and infrastructure. The Japanese government surrendered unconditionally and Far East war came to an end as Japan was Germany’s only remaining ally in the Far East. The dropping of these bombs was one of the most controversial actions of the entire war. President Harry Truman’s justification was that he was saving American lives, since the war could have dragged on for another year. The effects of the bombings are still being felt today as blind and disabled children are still being born in Japan today. - HOW DID THE BOMBING OF HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEFEAT OF JAPAN - The Americans wanted to end the war quickly but the Japanese fought stubbornly. The USA also feared loss of American lives in the war against Japan. Some military commanders wanted to fight to the last, but the bombings forced Emperor Hirohito to surrender. Hirohito did not know that Americans had no more atomic bombs. - However, the Japanese economy was already collapsing as many factories were destroyed. Japan had been defeated at the battles of Coral Sea, Midway and Leyte Gulf. In 1945, many people were starving and industrial production collapsed. Japanese resources were over stretched. Japan had a too large area to control and defend - DEFEAT OF THE AXIS POWERS- JULY 1943-AUGUST 1945 (a The fall / demise of Italy - - i. ii. This was the first stage in the Axis collapse. British and American troops landed in Sicily from the sea and air on 10july 1943 and quickly captured the whole island. This caused the downfall of Mussolini, who was dismissed by the King. Allied troops crossed to Salerno, Reggio and Taranta on the mainland and captured Naples in October 1943. Marshall Badoglio, Mussolini’s successor, signed an armistice and brought Italy onto the Allied side. The Germans, determined to hold on to Italy, rushed troops through the Brenner Pass to occupy Rome and the north. The Allies landed a force at Anzio, 30 miles south of Rome in January 1944, but bitter fighting followed before Monte Cassino and Rome were captured in May and June respectively. Milan in the north was not taken until April 1945 The elimination of Italy did contribute towards the final Allied victory as; Italy provided air bases for bombing the Germans in central Europe and the Balkans. German troops were kept occupied when they were needed to resist the Russians. (a) Germany defeated - - - - The Germans had bombed London and other important British cities and ports during 1940 and 1941, but these raids dwindled during operation Barbarossa which required all the Luftwaffe’s strength The British and Americans retaliated with what they called a “strategic air offensive’ which involved massive attacks on military and industrial targets in order to hamper the German war effort. The Ruhr, Cologne, Hamburg and Berlin all suffered badly At times, raids seem to have been carried out to undermine civilian morale, as when about 50 000 people were killed during a single night raid on Dresden in February 1945. A quick end to the war was delayed by desperate German resistance and by disagreements between the Americans and British Determined British and American action stemmed the advance and pushed the Germans back to their original position. The battle of the Bulge, as it became known, was vital because Hitler had risked everything on the attack and had lost 250 women and 600 tanks, which were irreplaceable at that stage. - - Early in 1945, Germany was being invaded on both fronts, from the east and the west The British still wanted to push ahead and take Berlin before the Russians, but supreme commander Eisenhower refused to be hurried, and Berlin fell to Stalin’s forces in April 1945 Hitler, not willing to surrender, ordered all armies to fight to the last round of the last men but his commanders could not risk lives of the remaining soldiers. Hitler, unable to face defeat, committed suicide together with his mistress, Eva Braun in an underground bunker in Berlin and Germany surrendered. Why did the Axis Powers lose the Second War? - The reasons can be summarized briefly: i. Shortage of raw materials ii. The Allies learned from their failures iii. The combined resources of the USA, USSR and British Empire iv. Serious tactical mistakes by the Axis powers - Hitler’s decision to attack to the USSR resulted in a war on two fronts i.e. Eastern and Western front - The strength of the USA its wealth, resources and fighting forces led to the demoralization of the Axis powers - The strength of the USSR, its people’s will to resist, the Russian winter, vast army and ability to manufacture weapons was another factor. - The German industry was seriously damaged by Allied bombing - German’s failure at Operation Sea Lion cost German heavy losses which were irreplaceable i.e. 1700 aircraft. - The Allies had command of the air and sea. - German resources were overstretched because they had to fight on the East, West and Italy as Mussolini was not adequately prepared. The invasion of Germany by the Allies cut off the supply of aid and other raw materials - The defeat/demise/fall of Italy in 1943 left Germany fighting alone in Europe - The dropping of the atomic bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki resulted in the defeat of Japan, German’s only allies in Asia. - German occupying forces faced strong resistance movements in many countries - Manpower shortage seriously hampered the war effort on the Axis powers side. - Use of inexperienced soldiers and forced labor added more salt to the already bleeding wound. Importance of role played by USA in the defeat of the Axis Powers - The USA provided its vast resources which tilted the scales in favor of the allies - The USA’s sea power was effective in defeating Japan i.e. 75% of Japan’s merchant ships were sunk by USA submarines USA atomic bombings destroyed Japanese homes and factories The bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 caused Japan to surrender unconditionally The USA supplied war equipment to Britain and Russia The USA defeated Japan at the Battle of Midway, USA and Pacific Fleet defeated Japanese attack, sinking four enemy aircraft and destroying 296 aircraft. USA General Eisenhower led the allied forces on the D-Day landings and liberation of France The USA helped Britain in defeating Germany an Italy in North Africa However other f actors also played a part There were resistance movements against Germany in France, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Denmark and Poland. Chinese resistance to Japan and the eventual defeat of Japan in China Failure of Germany to defeat Britain in Operation Sea Lion. Failure of Operation Barbarossa and the Russian winter also caused Germany’s demise Weakness of Italy also contributed to the Axis powers defeated as Germany constantly helped out. Countries invaded by Germany during WW2 - Poland - Denmark - Russia/USSR - France - Czechoslovakia - Britain - Belgium - Norway - Holland/Netherlands Weapons Used during WW2 - Tanks Machine guns Submarines/ U-boats Torpedo boats Warplanes (Spitfires) Bayonets/Knives Bombs Landmines Radar Armored cars Eastern European States that fell under communist control - Poland Czechoslovakia - Romania Yugoslavia Bulgaria Hungary Albania RESULTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR Economic - - Destruction of infrastructure, roads, railway lines, bridges, factories and industries There was a shift in the line of production e.g. from arms of war to consumer goods. Economic co-operation among nations sharing common interests and ideology e.g. Organization for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) and the 1948 Marshall Aid Plan. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank under the United Nations Organization (UNO) offered lines of credit to developing nations Political - - Division of Europe into two Political and economic blocs, East and West; Communism versus Capitalism, NATO versus Warsaw Pact. Creation of a new international organization, the United Nations Organization (UNO). Emergence of new states e.g. North and South Korea, East and West Germany Fall of dictatorships in Italy and Germany The map of Europe was recreated Self-determination for some minorities e.g. creation of Jewish homeland The Cold War between the East and west The status of women changed e.g. they were given the franchise in some countries. There was no all-inclusive peace settlement like in the First World War The war caused the production of nuclear weapons Europe’s domination of the rest of the world ended Emergence of super powers e.g. USA and Russia Decolonization was encouraged and achieved in some countries as people of different nationalities who had fought alongside their colonial masters/colonizers could not and were not willing to return to European rule.
