African Journal of Development Studies (AJDS)
ISSN 2634-3630 E-ISSN 2634-3649
Indexed by IBSS, EBSCO, COPERNICUS, ProQuest, SABINET and
J-Gate
Volume 12, Number 1, March 2022
pp 267-295
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents in Peri-urban
Villages and Rural Communities
Doi: https://doi.org/10.31920/2634-3649/2022/v12n1a14
Ayobami Abayomi POPOOLA
SARChI Chair for Inclusive Cities,
University of KwaZulu-Natal,
South Africa
Hangwelani Hope MAGIDIMISHA-CHIPUNGU
Department of Town & Regional Planning,
University of KwaZulu-Natal,
South Africa
&
Lovemore CHIPUNGU
Department of Housing,
University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Durban, South Africa
Abstract
Financial income and household status are common yardsticks for defining
household living conditions and wellbeing. The study examined the livelihood
conditions of selected peri-urban villages and rural communities in the
Southwestern region of Nigeria. The triangulation of methods which included
four hundred and seventy-two (472) household questionnaires survey provided
267
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
a thematic understanding of the study area. This study termed many villages as
“Few Excluded among the Commonly Excluded”. The study argues that rather
than urbanisation positively improving households; financial situation within
the peri-urban areas in the State; evidence from sampled communities reveals a
negative income and poverty profile effect. Likewise, distance was a predictor
of credit access among rural households. This study concludes that capital and
income flight due to urban infrastructure demand is common among rural
households.
Keywords: Rural Nigeria; Poverty; Livelihood; Distance; Infrastructure
Background to the Study
Spatial ecology points at the habitation of space by human of a different
race. Baiocchi et al. (2015) documented the uniqueness of a place and the
diversity of people’s experiences along such unique settlements. The
variance in places may be because of cultural, pre-historic, or
urbanisation effect. However, the common denominator is that outlook,
shape, and the emergence of settlements varies across space. According
to Ishak et al. (2018), the socio-spatial distinction of a place often reflects
the peoples’ interaction, orientation, and attachment to such places. This
variability was why authors (Fazal, 2013; Agyemang et al., 2019) iterated
that some rural space and lands will become urban and various land-uses
converted from one form to another. Thus, negatively impacting rural
settlement spatial configuration.
Issues of rural poverty, livelihood, liveability, and sustainability are
contemporary topics of discussion that have gained voice across global
conferences and round table meetings. According to Cao et al. (2017),
rural settlements are zones of primary activities and are located along city
corridors. This spatial location and perceived negative urbanisation have
continually exposed rural areas to shocks (Tian et al., 2018). According to
Long et al. (2016), the continued advocacy for rural and region
restructuring can be traced to adverse urbanisation and globalisation
effects on rural spaces. Some of these adverse effects are evident in
increased rural migration (Popoola and Akande, 2016), infrastructure
inequality when compared to urban areas (Popoola and Magidimisha,
2020b) and weak planning ideologies (Popoola and Magidimisha,
2020a). In China, Long et al. (2016) alluded to ‘brain drain’ (due to rural
human resource migration to cities), declining food production and loss
268
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
of rural place identities to be some of the sociological dimensions of
rural problems. In Ethiopia, Abera et al. (2021) suggested developing and
expanding rural infrastructures, strengthening rural–urban linkage, and
institutional cooperation to bring sustainable livelihood outcomes in the
area. In South Africa, it was reported that road condition and
connectivity is a determinant of health and educational wellbeing of
residents (Sewell et al., 2019). To this end, Townsend et al. (2013)
buttressed that economic and social vulnerability of rural areas are mainly
traced to her geographical remoteness and distance to ‘urban activity
zone’. Across Europe, it was mentioned that the dominance of the
ageing population, lack and poor accessibility to services and social
amenities, limited skill set, unemployment and poor education are
common features of rural areas (Velaga et al., 2012; Townsend et al.,
2013).
In Nigeria, nearly 70% rural dwellers, due to poor social
infrastructure (education, public services) and investment inequality
between urban and rural are characterised by poverty and poor quality of
life (Awotide et al., 2011). It was argued that rural dwellers in subSaharan Africa remain more exposed to disease burdens such as Cholera
(Osunla and Okoh, 2017) and maternal health crisis (Okedo-Alex et al.,
2019) due to limited portable water access and sparsely distributed health
service and facility respectively. This is because rural people and areas
remain undermined despite their population. The argument is that rural
areas across the globe are undoubtedly the locations and abodes of the
poor and the vulnerable owing to infrastructural neglect, geo-locational
isolation, and lack of or limited capacity and opportunities to explore
space to its fullness and to enable to people reach their potential. This
lack of capacity and opportunities results into increasing rural poverty
and limited households’ livelihood sources alternative. In Nigeria, despite
rural areas been the food production zone, and home to over 60% of the
nation’s population, it remains historically neglected, under-developed
(Lawal, 2014) and its sustainability threatened.
Sustainability is a popular multi-dimensional concept that involves a
balanced development of the socio-cultural, economic, and
environmental needs of successive generations. Looked at broadly,
sustainability entails capacity building, endurance, and maintenance of
wellbeing which is dependent on the efficient use of resources. Inferring
on the concept’s plethora use and applicability, Flores (2018) states that
its use cuts across political, economic, social, and physical studies. In this
framing, the place of dwellers and people as against resources used or the
managers of the resources, which is usually the government, is the
269
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
priority. Therefore, IFAD (2014) saw the Sustainable Livelihood
Approach (SLA) as an approach aimed at exploring the livelihood
limitations and potentials experienced by the poor populace, many of
whom are rural dwellers. The approach is not a compendium of
solutions for human livelihood survival, but an approach that braces up
and develop human and communities towards sustainability. The SLA
framework is an exploratory framework that attempts to depict real-life
experiences so that the causal factors of poverty and the various
determinants of livelihood opportunities of a particular group of people
based on set principles are examined. Thus, emphasising its peoplecentredness (IFAD, 2014). The process and means of people livelihood
with emphasis on rural poor remains the strength of the framework. The
sustainable livelihood approach remains essential and applicable to this
study because the study is aimed at examining the livelihood outcome of
rural dwellers on the dearth of infrastructure.
Studies (Adepoju and Obayelu, 2013; Etuk et al., 2018) reported that
infrastructure dearth and poor service delivery in rural Nigeria has
negatively impacted the wellbeing of the resident. The experiences
reveals that there is a need to further investigate household wellbeing of
rural dwellers in Oyo State, South-Western Nigeria. In examining this,
selected socio-demographics and locational characteristics were
optimised as a defining factor for wellbeing. The study question was:

What is the state of wellbeing (with focus on financial status) of
residents in the sampled settlements?
Study Method and Materials
In the cross-sectional design of the case study approach, a mixed method
was used. The mixed method allows the move away from the
susceptibility to the subjectivity of qualitative technique Mixed methods
involve the use of both qualitative and quantitative approaches. MolinaAzorín et al. (2015) argued that mixed methods allow for balanced
evidence and study reliability from both qualitative, and quantitative data
evidence. Quantitative data was sourced from household sample survey
while qualitative data was captured using interview, and direct
observation. Semi-structured personal interviews were conducted for
rural stakeholder. The questionnaire responses which included household
livelihood variables of the interviewed household head were collected
using Open Data Kit (ODK) software by the on-field support staffs and
270
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
mapped using ArcGIS, Google, and Earth Maps. Point coordinate of
facilities within the study area were collected by using geographical
positioning system (GPS) and then moved into the Google Earth
software environment for further spatial analysis. After that, ArcGIS is
used to analyse data by carrying out facility overlay in relation to the
study area. The map of Oyo State in the context of Nigeria and the maps
of LGAs in Oyo state were used to describe the study area and in
analysing the spatial dimension of variables under study. ArcGIS and
Google earth was used to gather real-time imagery of the area.
The household sample for this study was drawn from Local
Government Areas across three Senatorial Districts of Oyo State (Figure
1). The villages were selected using purposive sampling technique while
the interviews were conducted using convenient sampling. The
interviews were transcribed, coded, and analysed thematically. The study
relied on the mental map (based on official field experience[s]) and
technical knowledge of officials in the Department of Agriculture across
the sampled villages. In situations where the targeted sample size could
not be achieved within the initially sampled settlement, the next nearest
rural community is sampled and were administered the questionnaire(s)
(given room for cluster sampling technique). The study included some
settlements classified as poor and vulnerable during the National Cash
Transfer Policy (a household Uplifting Programme aimed at responding
to deficiencies in capacity and lack of investment in the human capital of
poor and vulnerable households). The gate keeper letter was gotten from
the Local Government Area Headquarters and Ministry/Departmental
Officials, and a follow-up referral from the LGA officials to the village
heads. After that, informal consent and approval were given by the
traditional village leaders (baales). It should be noted that all ethical
considerations were sorted during preliminary engagements with the
Ministry of Agriculture prior to the primary data collection.
Eleven rural villages distributed across the nine LGAs were selected
(see Table 1). The population size of the villages and the targeted
sampled population in each LGA determined the number of chosen
settlements. However, the unit of analysis in this study is based on the
household data, with one household member (household head or the
most mature that is above 18 years) interviewed at the sampled house
within the selected village. To mitigate the effects of this evident
challenge of rural terrain and building arrangement (scattered village
distribution), a questionnaire was administered to each household head
or the most ageing adult when the senior person is unavailable.
271
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
According to the National Population Commission (2006), the nine
randomly selected LGAs for the study consisted of 298,609 household
units. Owing to the spatial arrangement of homesteads, locational
characteristics, homogeneity of the area, dispersed settlement, and the
nature of the rural people of the study area, a combination of sample size
deduction techniques were considered in arriving at the study sample
size. Following Cochran (1977) and Yusuf (2013) at a 95%, confidence
interval, a sample size of five hundred rural household units (0.1674% of
298,609 households sample frame in the nine sampled LGAs) was
considered (see Figure 1 and Table 1). However, after data sorting of the
administered household questionnaire, only 472 questionnaires were
considered useful for the study, representing a response rate of 94.4%.
Table 1: Household Sample Frame and Size in Sampled LGAs
S/N LGA
1
Number of
households in
the LGA.
22372
Targeted
Used
Sample size Questionnaire
(0.1674%)
38
31
22513
Eleven
Sampled
Villages
Iya-Ikoko
and Idere
Alabi
38
38
25776
Akufo
43
43
3
Ibarapa
Central
Ibarapa
North
Ido
4
Irepo
24709
Iya-Yooyi
41
41
5
Iseyin
55034
92
91
6
7
8
Olorunsogo 17372
Oyo East
28652
Atiba
35379
29
48
59
29
48
59
9
Egbeda
66802
GbokoyiOlatutu,
and
Alagogo
Gaa-Sidi
Ajagba
AkoduduLagbiyan
OwoBaale
112
92
Total
298609
500
472
2
Source: NPC (2006) and Authors’ Compilation
272
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
Figure 1: Location of the sampled LGAs within Oyo State
Source: Authors’ Mapping
Study Findings and Discussion
The Geography of the Sampled Settlements
Table 2 provides a spatial analysis of the sampled villages. This took into
consideration the mental image and field observation recall of the
sampled settlements. Despite the understanding that variations in rural
characteristics and locational features are a driving force towards rural
development (Nchuchuwe and Adejuwon, 2012) the nexus between rural
geography, livelihood and environment remain undocumented.
Therefore, understanding the geography of the study area is imperative
to this study.
273
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
Table 2: Triangulated Evidence of the Geography of Sampled
Communities
Explanatory Geography of Place Keywords: Physical outlook and condition;
Nearness to secondary school; Transport infrastructure and condition;
Accessibility and proximity to LGA and State Capital; and Distinct
demographics
Akodudu-Lagbiyan: as a linear settlement pattern - characterised by plains and
rugged geomorphology - Clayey soil limits water resource sustainability and
availability during dry season. There is a presence of Federal Government Girls’
College Oyo (a boarding-based federal public secondary school). Highway
linkage to two lesser cities (Oyo and Ogbomoso)- Medium density LGA capital.
The villages are characterised by farmer-herders clash and conflicts owing to the
location for the Fulani herdsmen due to the availability of grass for their
animals.
Owo-Baale: is characterised by the suburbanisation effect from Ibadan
provides a rural-peri-urban outlook. - Interviewee asserts that to urban migrants
it is a settlement, and to indigenous settlers it is a village. - Transit settlement.
The road condition is poor – as the settlement is linked by a road constructed
during the military regime through the DFFRI programme of 1986–1993 and
has now been reduced to an earth surface. It has a highway linkage to capital
city Ibadan and Ife and is occupied by migrant low-income civil servants
resident and fish farmers owing to closeness to Asejire Dam
Idere and Iya-Ikoko: are isolated farm settlements. Their nodal transit route
allows for the easy flow of products and people. Mobility is mainly through the
motorcycle. This socio-culturally homogenous LGA is known for having the
highest number of twin-births in the world
Alabi: is characterised by a mountainous and hilly terrain that continues to
limit its physical development. It is a market settlement. The village is
geographically isolated away from the LGA headquarter as it is a boundary
settlement
Akufo: is a farm and Peri-urban settlement. The village functions as a
traditional administrative headquarter to over ten smaller villages. There is a
secondary educational facility in the villages.
Iya-Yooyi: is a linear settlement connected by Kishi-Igbeti Highway. It is also
one of the country’s border town and the agricultural basket belt of the country
Akodudu and Gbokoyi-Olatutu: are twin isolated settlements characterised
by farming activities.
Gaa-Sidi: is a migrant settlement located along the highway. The settlement is a
nomadic settlement for Fulani herders and accessibility is through unpaved road
by motorcycle.
Ajagba: is a linear settlement. It is an informal relocation farm settlement for
farmers affected by the urban sprawl of the capital city – Ibadan.
274
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
Demographic Characteristics of Rural Oyo State
In this study, of the 472 participants, 55.5 per cent (n=262) were male
and 44.5 per cent (n=210) were female. The study reported 11 per cent
more male than female respondents (Table 3). This difference may be
attributed to the questionnaire survey between 9 am and 3 pm when the
male household occupants would be on the farm. At the same time, the
women (many of whom are traders) would be at home doing household
chores before joining the men on the farm. In the sample settlements of
Akodudu, Alagogo, Olatutu, Ajagba and Gaa-Sidi, prior notice was given,
and an appointment was made to meet residents during their afternoon
farm break (1pm and 4 pm) hour.
Table 3: Household Respondents Demographics Details
Variable
Gender
Marital
Status
Response
Male
Female
Total
Single
Married
Separated
Divorced
Widowed
Total
No.
262
210
472
46
403
3
3
17
472
%
55.5
44.5
100.0
9.7
85.4
0.6
0.6
3.6
100.0
Age of
Household
Respondents
Ethnic Group
Response
18-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
60+
Total
Yoruba
Igbo
Hausa
Others
Total
No.
81
126
125
79
61
472
382
8
8
74
472
%
17.2
26.7
26.5
16.7
12.9
100.0
80.9
1.7
1.7
15.7
100.0
Many (85.4%) of the sampled respondents are married and practice
monogamous marriage (71%) (Table 3). The age grouping of the sample
respondents revealed that 70.4 per cent of the respondents were below
50 years of age and another 12.9 per cent above 60 years of age. The
majority (80.9%) of the respondents were Yoruba speaking respondents.
The remaining 19.1 per cent were mainly people from other areas (Igbo 1.7%; Hausa - 1.7% and the Togolese, Beninese, Ibira and Nupe who
were from another country whose ethnic groups were unknown - 15.7%)
who had settled in the State due to job opportunities or having parents
of another tribe.
275
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
Household Socio-economic Characteristics in Rural Oyo State
Within the sampled households, many (71%) are a nuclear family and
most (58.1%) engaged in farming as their primary source of livelihood
(Table 4). Evidence (Table 4) revealed a high percentage (21.4%) of
illiteracy within the sampled household respondents, 15.3 per cent
completing or had finished/completed their tertiary education. The
distribution of the household dependency shows that 61.0 per cent had a
dependent household population of fewer than four persons, 29.0 per
cent had between five to eight persons. In comparison, the remaining
10.0 per cent had a household dependency ratio of above eight persons
(Table 4). Evidence presented in Table 5 reveals that an expected set
standard of two persons (adults) per room was only obtainable by 29.2
per cent (138 households).
276
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
Table 4: Household Socio-Demographic Characteristics
Main Source of Livelihood
Household Size
Response
Number
Percent
Farming
274
58.1
Non87
18.4
Farming
Dual sector
111
23.5
Total
472
100.0
No. of Household Dependents
Response
Number
Percent
Less
than
Four
288
61.0
Persons
Five
to
Eight
137
29.0
Persons
Above
Eight
47
10.0
persons
Total
472
100.0
Highest Household Educational
Status
Response
Number
Percent
No Formal
101
21.4
Education
Primary
105
22.2
Secondary
194
41.1
Tertiary
72
15.3
Total
472
100.0
Response
Number
Percent
Less than Four 101
21.4
Between Five
209
44.3
and Eight
Above Eight
162
34.3
Total
472
100.0
Household Number per Bedroom
Response
Number
Percent
<2
138
29.2
3-5
284
60.2
50
10.6
Total
472
Type of Marriage
100.0
Response
Polygamous
Number
Percent
137
29.0
>5
Monogamous
335
Total
472
Residency Status
Response
Number
Indigenes
312
Migrants
160
Total
472
71.0
100.0
Percent
66.1
33.9
100.0
Findings also reveal a household dwelling ratio in the room to be less
than two persons per room as 29.2 per cent, between three to five
persons per room as 60.2 per cent, while in some households, the room
dwelling ratio is usually above five persons as 10.6 per cent. Table 5
shows that 66.1 per cent of the sampled population were indigenous
dwellers (with ancestral history to the village). Others (33.9%) are
migrants from neighbouring villages, States, or countries. Many (88%) of
the households have the male as their financial head (Figure 2).
277
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
Figure 2: Household Financial Head
Table 5: Household Type, Occupancy and Skill Level
Question
Household type
Response
Indigenous
Dweller
Migrant Dweller
Total
History
of <Five years
household
Six to ten years
occupancy
>11 years
Total
Responses
<Five years
Length of Stay
Six to ten years
>11 years
Total
Are any of the household members
skilled?
Yes
No
162
312
39
201
31
28
142
201
Frequency
91
83
298
472
160
472
60
55
156
271
%
19.3
17.6
63.1
100
From the respondents interviewed, many (63.1 per cent) had been living
in the rural community for over a decade, 17.6 per cent had been staying
in the sample villages for between six to ten years while the remaining
19.3 per cent had been living there for the past five years.
278
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
Household Income Characteristics
The main focus of the study was the financial wellbeing (capital and
financial asset) of rural dwellers. This section set the monetary exchange
rate of 1 USD to ₦350 for this study. The World Bank recommends that
the daily cost of living per person is US$1.25 and US$38.75 per month,
or ₦13,562.5 (World Bank, 2013). Based on the 1.25 USD per day
poverty line (World Bank, 2013), 23.1 per cent of the study households
(109 households representing 23.5 per cent of the total respondents)
could be regarded as poor (earning below 38.75USD per month). The
average household income in rural Oyo State was calculated/estimated at
₦31,562.7. The gender distribution shows that female respondents earn
an average of ₦23,013, and males earn ₦38,199.2.
Okunmadewa (1999) and Osanyinlusi et al. (2017), assumptions of
mean per capita household expenditure (MPCHE), mean per capita
household income (MPCHI) (₦31,497), and per capita income (PCI)
(₦3500) was used to examine financial livelihood conditions. The
findings revealed that 62.5 per cent could be considered poor as they
earned below the ₦31,497 mean per capita income threshold. The
distribution of the 62.5 per cent shows that 22.7% resided in Iseyin
LGA, Atiba (10.8%), Egbeda (20.7%), Ibarapa Central (4.4%), Ibarapa
North (9.5%), IDO (10.8%), Irepo (6.8%), Olorunsogo (6.1%), and the
remaining 7.8 per cent residing in Oyo East LGA.
279
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
Table 6: Household Income, Expenses and Access to Credit
Income
Responses in Naira (Note Exchange Rate of 1USD to
₦350)
n= 448
Less than ₦11000 (31.4USD)
₦11001 (31.4USD) - ₦22000 (63USD)
₦22001(63USD)-₦33000 (94USD)
₦33001(94USD)- ₦44000(126USD)
₦44001(126USD)- ₦55000(157USD)
₦55001(157USD)- ₦66000(189USD)
Above ₦66001(189USD)
Total
Unwilling to Disclose Income
Total
No.
109
108
84
50
48
8
41
448
24
472
%
23.1
22.9
17.8
10.6
10.2
1.7
8.7
95.0
5.0
100.0
Household Expenses
Type of Expenses (Average per Month) = 461
Amount (₦)
Medical
Social (including Recreational)
Educational
Miscellaneous and Household Items
Total Expenses Recorded
Total Income of All Respondents
Average Income in Oyo State
Average Income in Sampled Males
Average Income in Sampled Females
₦640,650
₦475,100
₦4,899,000
₦3,611,451
₦9,626,201
₦14,110,700
₦31,567
₦38,199.2
₦23,013
% Total Average
Income
of
Household
Respondents
4.5401
3.3669
34.7183
25.5937
68.219
Sorted Data on Most Spent Expenses (Average per
Month)
n= 461
Amount (₦)
Medical Expenses
Social Expenses (including Recreational)
Educational Expenses
Other Miscellaneous and Household Expenses
Total
Access to Credit Facility (Loans)
No
Yes
Total
Respondents Unwilling to Respond
Total
437,050
113,000
4,065,500
3,182,301
₦7,797,851
No.
409
51
460
12
472
280
% Coverage of
Total
Average
Income
of
Household
Respondents
3.097
0.800
28.811
22.552
55.26
%
86.7
10.8
97.5
2.5
100.0
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
The aggregate data presented in Table 6 shows the total household
expenses of the respondents to be ₦9,626,201. The total expenditures
accounted for 68.219 per cent of the total household income, with the
main expenditure being education (34.7183%) and miscellaneous and
household items (25.59%). Analysis revealed that the mean per capita
household expenditure (MPCHE) was ₦20881.13 (₦2881.13 above the
common minimum wage of ₦18000 (Okafor and Aniche, 2015). Mean
per capita household expenditure (MPCHE), representing a livelihood of
wealth for these households was calculated by dividing the total number
of respondents from the total household expenditure. Following studies
(Foster et al., 1984; Okunmadewa, 1999; Osanyinlusi et al., 2017)
assumption, the poverty profile was conducted to explain the severity of
household poverty using the PCE within the study area. The evidence
presented shows that within rural Oyo State, per head expenditure was
₦2,388. Table 6 indicates that only 10.8 per cent (51 household
respondents) had access to a credit facility from any source, while 86.7
per cent had no access in the form of soft loans, and the remaining 12
(2.5%) did not respond to the question.
Discussion
Social Geography of Rural Oyo State: The Socio-Demographic
Characteristics
In indigenous and traditional rural areas as in Oyo State, household
heads, usually males, serve as the household spokesperson. In Oyo State,
rural and peri-urban areas are occupied by married people with demand
for housing and associated facilities (Adedayo and Akinremi, 2015). The
view is that spatial-geographical isolation, rural homogeneity, and
increasing socialisation and integration, promote marital activities and
rural birth increase. The age grouping of the sample respondents was to
ensure data reliability. This is because the older person (above 18 years of
age) possesses a more informed knowledge of the setting. The Yoruba
ethnic dominance reflected the local ethnic culture of the environment.
Gaa-Sidi Village in Olorunsogo LGA was an exception from the villages
sampled, being a migrant settlement occupied mainly by non-Yorubaspeaking tribes. Likewise, the presence of Togolese and Beninese at
Irepo LGA could be attributed to its nearness to the Nigeria-Republic of
Benin border.
281
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
Household Characteristics as a Determinant of Infrastructure
Wellbeing and Access
Rural households are dynamic and exhibit various characteristics. Part of
the characteristics exhibited by rural households is livelihood
diversification from farming. Studies have reported the seasonal
(planting) and hourly (early morning and late evening trading) livelihood
diversification among rural farming households (Akaakohol and Aye,
2014). Due to household income demands and pressure on land
resources in the sampled villages (Egbeda, Ido, Oyo-East, Atiba, and
Iseyin LGA), many women engage in trading and entrepreneurship
(pepper milling and tailors) with their businesses and workspaces located
in front of their homes. Lasisi et al. (2017) have pointed at the effect of
peri-urbanisation on rural land and resources. The notion is that some
rural dwellers (especially along urban corridors) are city poor (urban
migrant families) in search of lower rental costs, and cheap or familyowned land. However, it is reported that natural or anthropogenic
shocks and stress can lead to induced livelihood diversification (Wossen
et al., 2018) and forced migration among villagers.
Field observation (of the 18.4% diversified households) revealed that
trading in food items and groceries, tailoring, vulcanising, and barbing are
the most common forms of non-farming occupations in the study area.
Davis et al. (2017) reported that non-farming diversification was on the
increase in Nigeria. However, its relevance as a means to generating more
income cannot be downplayed. However, this finding calls for caution in
Oyo, which is regarded as one of the food-production zones of the
country. Instances of households engaging in both farming and nonfarming activities are usually obvious when the male household head
engages in farming and the mother or one of the children engages in a
complimentary occupation. There was also an instance where the farmer
engaged in farming during the week and travelled (Iseyin – nearby town)
over the weekend to engage in private residential security services. Based
on observations and informal discussions, many of these livelihood
diversification households had a nuclear family structure.
In rural Nigeria, the presence of polygamous homes has been
attributed to farming activity. This study reported many households to be
monogamous. While the sociological and demographical perceptive
regarding nuclear families is evident in the area, the role of education and
literacy (as 50% of the families has as low as primary education) cannot
be ignored. Education is an important aspect of rural human capacity
282
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
and planning household livelihood. The uneducated half are in OyoNorth Senatorial District (Irepo, Iseyin and Olorunsogo LGA). The
geographical isolation and settlement characteristics of the villages (as
Fulani migrant settlement [Gaa-Sidi] and linear settlement- away from
the township area [Iya-Yooyi village]) accounts for this. Evidence from
researchers’ observations revealed that these two settlements lacked an
up-to-standard efficient and functioning school (as schooling is periodic)
facility.
Figure 3: Migrant Secondary School GaaSidi (Olorunsogo LGA)
At Gaa-Sidi, the frontage of the community leader house is used as the
nursery school (Figure 3). At the same time, it takes between ninety
minutes to two hours to travel via motorcycle to the closest primary
school at the LGA headquarter. At Iya-Yooyi, students travel an average
of 40 minutes on foot to the nearest under-performing (periodic
schooling and under-staffing) primary school (Figure 4) and another one
hour and thirty minutes to access the primary school at the LGA
headquarter. All these exceed, the planning standard of ten to twenty
minutes’ walk for nursery schools and twenty to forty minutes to a
primary school (Vagale, 2000). The view is that a lack of concern
regarding infrastructure discrimination despite the abundant human
household population is a common experience in rural spaces.
283
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
Figure 4: Community Primary School Ajetounwa (40minute walk to IyaYooti village)
The 472 households sampled are home to 4032 persons. The average
household size was nine persons, with 1851 people being regarded as
dependent, representing a ratio of 1:2.1782 of the total household
resident, with a moderate dependency of four persons and at least two
persons in a room. The expected set standard of two persons (adults) per
room was only obtainable in 138 households.
While literature within Nigeria exists regarding the expected dwelling
ratio of two adults to occupy a room size of 120m2 in the urban areas
(Vagale, 2000; Adebayo and Iweka, 2013), the level of rural crowding
index ratio is not well reported despite the rural areas getting congested
(Udoh, 2016). Pictorial evidence depicts the houses (rooms) to be small
(Figure 5). Although discussion revealed that people that are ethnically or
family (by lineage) related live close to each other.
Figure 5: Rural Housing Types across the Sampled Villages
284
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
Household Wellbeing: Examining Skillset and Mobility – Weekend
Movement between Urban and Rural Areas
Many of the households can be said to be migratory households that
moved to the nearest hometown on weekends. Unscheduled visits to the
villages revealed that few of the villagers were around. Many were
reported to have gone home (ancestral town-Iseyin, LGA Capital) for the
weekend. It was revealed that weekend trips leave the rural villages
abandoned and quiet. Although interviews show that some migrate
(temporarily) to hometowns to access essential infrastructure such as
powering their phones and lamps for the next farm week. Some
household likewise pointed out that villagers migrate to the closest
townships (called Ile with a literal meaning of ‘Home’) during weekends,
as many were weary of the possibility of the Fulani herdsmen invading
their community and farms when the more muscular adults were not
around. A community settler, one of the FGD discussant Iya-Ikoko, had
this to say:
…Due to a clash and confrontation with the Fulani herders (that
invaded our farms on weekends), I was arrested, and left with health
complications in the police detention… Since then, my children have
made it a ‘must’ for me to come home during the weekends... In fact, I
was almost stopped from farming….
Migration (temporary) as a form of livelihood adaptation is often shared
among male-headed households. Some non-farming households engage
in skill-oriented services, such as tailoring, hunting, hairdressing,
grinding, motorcycle riding; lumbering, bricklaying, and barbing, to fend
for their households. It was observed that nine per cent of mothers and
three per cent of children are the households’ minor financial
contributors. Most homesteads rely main on men for their livelihood
survival, owing to the limited skill among females. This was why
Akinbode and Hamzat (2017) reported that women in rural Nigeria are
subjected to poverty and a life of struggle on the death of the husband or
male household financier. This is due to limited capacity and physical
arrangement to explore business opportunities in rural areas.
Rural Household Financial Wellbeing in Oyo State
The nexus between rural poverty and the estimated average limited
income is essential to understanding household wellbeing. According to
285
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
the Senatorial Districts, the LGA average monthly income classification
indicates that Oyo-South, Oyo-North and Oyo-Central Senatorial
District participants was ₦35,069.4, ₦25201.3, and ₦31,260, respectively.
This classified the households in Oyo-North Senatorial District (Irepo,
Iseyin and Olorunsogo LGAs) has the lowest average monthly earners.
The average households in the Oyo-South Senatorial District earned
₦9868.1 more than those within the Oyo-North Senatorial District.
Likewise, the Oyo-Central Senatorial District households earned ₦6058.7
more than those that fell within the Oyo-North Senatorial District. The
income condition can be attributed to the high cost of expenditure on
educational facilities. The study data reveals that total expenses
accounted for 68.219% of the total household income stated by the 448
respondents. The main expenditure source for rural households in the
sampled LGAs are expenses on educational (34.7183%), and households
(25.59%) respectively. While this study did not unravel what constitutes
household expenses or the educational type (tertiary, secondary or
primary schooling related costs) mostly spent on. Economic experts and
fiscal planners might be further interested in further investigating what
constitutes the expenses of rural households.
Data evidence reveals that educational, household, and
miscellaneous, medical, and social expenses respectively accounted for a
large chunk of household income expenditure. Many households
depended on loans (as high as ₦200,000/572USD) to ease the financial
expense stress. They were sourced from micro-finance banks, cooperative societies, the government and individual associations and
unions (such as farmers’ and oil palm traders’ associations). Why some
households were unsuccessful in a loan application, many reported that
the stress and loss of collateral assets, which was common among
households that got the loan remain a discouragement. It was mentioned
that many households lost their collateral asset/support and suffered
emotional abused by financial institutions due to delayed or failure to
meet repayment plan.
286
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
Figure 6: Spatial Distribution of Poverty using MPCHE
Source: Authors’ Mapping
This points to limited access to government financial support in the
study area. However, farmers reported limited knowledge and
information on the US$272 million Federal Government of Nigeria and
the International Fund for Agricultural Development through the Rural
Finance Institution Building Programme (RUFIN) project. This limited
information can be attributed to village geographical isolation. The
observation data (Figure 6) shows that the sampled villages in Iseyin were
isolated, lacked tarred means of accessibility, were not connected to the
electricity grid and had no potable water, all of which influence
household poverty. Only Olatutu had a periodically functioning borehole
although, villagers needed to travel 35 - 60minutes to the nearest health
facility. Responding to a question on the livelihood of the people in
Gbokoyi, a villager said:
Why won’t there be poverty? Shebi ona niyi? (Literally lamenting of the
rugged road terrain). There is no electricity, secondary schools, or
health centres. We are really suffering. Iseyin LGA Household
Interviewee (January 2018)
287
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
Based on the evidence in Owo-Baale in Egbeda LGA and Akufo in Ido
LGA, the finding is that city (Ibadan) sprawl has increased household
displacement and increased travel time to services. This effect was also
reported by Lasisi et al. (2017) and Wahab and Popoola (2019). They
stated that urban expansion (urban spaces to peri-urban and rural) had
subjected rural dwellers to travelling away from the expanding cities.
Although evidence pointed out that of about 13 households that earn
between ₦100000 and ₦500000, seven reside along peri-urban corridors
or villages adjoined by lesser towns. Further evidence revealed that some
of the high-income earners are urban migrant dwellers with white-collar
jobs in the city centre who reside within the rural space. However, the
study reported that many of the lowest income earners (₦200 and
₦2500) still reside along the peri-urban and lesser town village corridors
of Ido, Egbeda, Atiba and Oyo-East LGAs. This indicates that OyoSouth and Oyo Central senatorial districts consist of the poorest and
highest income earning households. Income imbalance across gender
exists as males were ₦15,186.2 richer than females.
The study found that accessibility, isolation (due to urban sprawl
displacement), and occupation of the villages influences their livelihood
options. The evidence points out that peri-urban areas of the Ibadan are
zones of poverty and infrastructurally deprived dwellers. In Iseyin LGA,
which can be classified as an “isolated-farm area,” a farming household
head had this to say:
What we need now are livelihood infrastructures (roads, loans,
maternity support, power, and secondary schools) on our farms and
villages because when a comparison was done among the traders and
transporters (rural supply chain) and farmers, the traders and
transporters were more successful than the farmers.
Aligning with the infrastructure poverty that provokes financial
limitation, a public key informant argued that the absence of
infrastructure in rural areas has considerably affected their wellbeing and
decreased their income due to the increasing access and travel costs of
using facilities. She said:
The lack of basic amenities such as power supply led to induced rural
migration. They (rural dwellers) are being referred to as being poor in
terms of rural facilities owing lack of social amenities, not in terms of
288
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
money. They are forced to spend more to access the services and
facilities in the nearby towns.
Examining the Relationship between Distance and Household
Wellbeing and Facility Accessibility
The distance was regarded as an essential component in accessing
various services across the study area. To explain the relevance of the
distance covered concerning livelihood conditions, the study tested the
hypothesis (through linear regression analysis) of whether distance could
be used to explain income and credit access. The results of the linear
regression model for income were not significant [F (2,390) = 0.22, p =
.804, R2 = 0.00], indicating that the distance to the capital city and the
distance travelled to the LGA headquarters did not explain a significant
proportion of variation in average income.
However, the binary logistic regression conducted to examine
whether the distance to the capital city and the LGA headquarters had a
significant effect on the odds of observing the ‘No’ category of credit
access shows a significant overall model, with χ2(2) = 21.98, p < .001,
suggesting that the distance to the capital city and LGA headquarters had
a significant effect on the odds of observing the ‘No’ category of credit
access. McFadden's R-squared was calculated to examine the model fit,
where values greater than 0.2 are indicative of models with an excellent
fit. The McFadden R-squared value calculated for this model was 0.07.
The regression coefficient for distance to the capital city was significant,
with B = -0.01, OR = 0.99, p = .008, indicating that for one-unit increase
in distance to the capital city, the odds of observing the ‘No’ category of
credit access would decrease by approximately one per cent. The
regression coefficient for the distance travelled to LGA headquarters was
not significant, with B = -0.01, OR = 0.99, p = .503, indicating that the
distance travelled to LGA headquarters did not have a significant effect
on the odds of observing the ‘No’ category of credit access. The
explanation was the ease of financial institution (banks and lending
institutions) access and credit-related opportunities and information
available to peri-urban spaces (IDO and Egbeda, respectively) and
dwellers than sampled villages in rural LGAs that are located along the
State boundary or farther away from the capital city (Table 7).
289
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
Table 7: Logistic Regression Result of Distance to Capital City and
Distance Travelled to LGA Headquarters Predicting
Household Credit Access
Variable
B
SE
(Intercept)
-0.43
0.43
Distance to the capital city
-0.01
0.00
Distance travelled to LGA
-0.01
headquarters
0.02
95% CI
[-1.27,
0.43]
[-0.02,
0.00]
[-0.05,
0.02]
χ
-
2
p
OR
0.96
.326
7.03
.008
0.99
0.45
.503
0.99
Note. χ2(2) = 21.98, p < .001, McFadden R2 = 0.07.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The study draws that limited access, geographical isolation and lack of
infrastructure limits village weekend productivity and liveability. The
authors termed rural villages during the weekends (usually between
Friday evenings to early Monday morning) “Ghost-land/Unproductive
village”. It was revealed that migration from villages to nearest towns
during this period is traced to infrastructure poverty. Improving access
will assist in managing rural isolation and its negative effect. This study
identifies with the idea that one of the easiest routes by the government
for rural dwellers to enjoy the dividend of good governance is the
provision of social and physical infrastructure that can help promote the
economy of the rural people. The argument is that the ghost-plaques
nature of rural setting presents a perception of the rural-urban migrant
aspiration for urban infrastructure. No matter how fallible it may seem,
their perception has presented hope for them in the urban space.
The same infrastructure hope that resulted in the deadness of the rural
spaces over the weekends. The evidence of livelihood differences
connotes that some rural areas are more excluded than others. This
development and such area are what the researchers has termed “Few
Excluded among the Commonly Excluded”. The study is of the view
that one main driver to the dearth and under-servicing of the studied area
is isolation and distance. The argument is that if access (road
connectivity) is improved, economic activities and opportunities will be
increased in the sampled areas. This will then be trickle-down to
improved basic infrastructure provisions and wellbeing.
290
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
To manage the income disparity across the villages, the study
recognises the need for Senatorial District Economic Improvement
policy that is space (Oyo North senatorial district) and gender (female)
focused. The relevance of education policy vis-à-vis skill is to enhance
the poor state of education in Oyo-North Senatorial district. The view is
that there is a need for increased investment in rural capacity building
through the establishment of entrepreneurship and skill acquisition
training programmes to boost rural household survival capacity, income,
and livelihood. The study recognised the need for improved information
access on government support system such as the Rural Finance Support
Programme. This will serve as a support system to the resilient and
adaptive lifestyles (such as dependence on footpath and motorcycle for
mobility and use of traditional herbs as against utilising conventional
health facilities) among households in Oyo State.
The view is that this will check rural capital flight (through township
service demand) among households. The study suggests a paradigm shift
on rural household expenses rather than income for rural related studies.
Ethical Statement and Funding
This research has taken into consideration ethical approval within the
Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (HSSREC)
(HSS.1906/017D) of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The study
acknowledges the support under the SARChI Chair for Inclusive Cities,
University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The researchers declare no
conflict of interest.
References
Abera, A., Yirgu, T., and Uncha, A. (2021). Determinants of rural
livelihood diversification strategies among Chewaka resettlers’
communities of southwestern Ethiopia. Agriculture and Food
Security, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.1-19.
Adebayo, A. and Iweka, A. (2013). Dwelling density variability across
government-built multifamily apartments in Lagos, Ethiopian Journal of
Environmental Studies and Management, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp.517-522
Adedayo, A., and Akinremi, A. (2015). Peri–urban housing in Oyo state:
Case study of Apete Ibadan. International Journal of Humanities and
Social Science Invention, Vol. 4, No. 12, pp.62-68
291
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
Adepoju, A., and Obayelu, O. (2013). Livelihood diversification and
welfare of rural households in Ondo State, Nigeria. Journal of
Development and Agricultural Economics, Vol. 5, No. 12, pp.482-489.
Agyemang, F., Silva, E., and Poku-Boansi, M. (2019). Understanding the
urban spatial structure of Sub-Saharan African cities using the case of
urban development patterns of a Ghanaian city-region. Habitat
International, Vol. 85, pp.21-33.
Akaakohol, M. and Aye, G. (2014). Diversification and farm household
welfare in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. Development Studies
Research, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.168-175
Akinbode, S. and Hamzat, S. (2017). Women asset ownership and
household poverty in rural Nigeria, Journal of Social Science, Vol. 16,
No. 1, pp.45-64
Awoyemi, T. and Obayelu, O. (2010). Spatial dimension of poverty in
rural Nigeria. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics, Vol. 2,
No. 6, pp.231-244.
Baiocchi, G., Creutzig, F., Minx, J., and Pichler, P. (2015). A spatial
typology of human settlements and their CO2 emissions in
England. Global Environmental Change, Vol. 34, pp.13-21.
Cao, Y., Bai, Z., Sun, Q., and Zhou, W. (2017). Rural settlement changes
in compound land use areas: Characteristics and reasons of changes
in a mixed mining-rural-settlement area in Shanxi Province,
China. Habitat International, Vol. 61, pp.9-21.
Cochran, W. 1977. Sampling techniques. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley and
Sons
Davis, B., Di Giuseppe, S. and Zezza, A. (2017). Are African households
(not) leaving agriculture? Patterns of households’ income sources in
rural Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy, Vol. 67, pp.153-174.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.09.018
Etuk, E., Udoe, P., and Okon, I. (2018). Determinants of Livelihood
Diversification among Farm Households in Akamkpa Local
Government Area, Cross River State, Nigeria. Agrosearch, Vol. 18,
No. 2, pp.101-112.
Fazal, S. (2013). Conceptualizing Peri-Urban Interface. In Land Use
Dynamics in a Developing Economy (pp. 15-25). Springer, Dordrecht.
Flores, S. (2018). What is sustainability in the wine world? A crosscountry analysis of wine Sustainability frameworks. Journal of Cleaner
Production, Vol. 172, pp.2301-2312.
292
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
Foster, J., Greer, J. and Thorbecke, E. 1984. A Class of decomposable
Poverty measures. Econometrical, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp.761-766.
International Fund for Agricultural Development [IFAD]. (2014). The
Sustainable livelihoods approach. Available at: http://www.ifad.org/
sla/index_f.htm [Accessed August ‎10, ‎2021].
Ishak, R., Trisutomo, S., Wikantari, R., and Harisah, A. (2018). SocioSpatial Typology In Karanrang Island. In SHS Web of Conferences (Vol.
41, p. 03001). EDP Sciences.
Lasisi, M., Popoola, A., Adediji, A., Adedeji, O. and Babalola, K. (2017).
City Expansion and Agricultural Land Loss within the Peri-Urban
Area of Osun State, Nigeria. Ghana Journal of Geography, Vol. 9, No. 3,
pp.132–163.
Lawal, T. 2014. Local Government and Rural Infrastructural Delivery in
Nigeria. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social
Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp.139-147.
Long, H., Tu, S., Ge, D., Li, T. and Liu, Y. (2016). The allocation and
management of critical resources in rural China under restructuring:
Problems and prospects. Journal of Rural Studies, Vol. 47, pp.392-412.
Molina-Azorín, J., Tarí, J., Pereira-Moliner, J., Lopez-Gamero, M., and
Pertusa-Ortega, E. (2015). The effects of quality and environmental
management on competitive advantage: A mixed methods study in
the hotel industry. Tourism Management, Vol. 50, pp.41-54.
Nchuchuwe, F. and Adejuwon, K. 2012. The challenges of agriculture
and rural development in Africa: The case of Nigeria. International
Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, Vol.
1, No. 3, pp.45-61.
Okafor, J., and Aniche, E. (2015). The 2011 National Minimum Wage
Act Controversy and Trade Dispute in Nigeria: Problematizing
Nigeria's Fiscal Federalism. Public Policy and Administration
Research, Vol. 5, No. 9, pp. 111-123.
Okedo-Alex, I., Akamike, I., Ezeanosike, O. and Uneke, C, (2019).
Determinants of antenatal care utilisation in sub-Saharan Africa: a
systematic review. BMJ open, Vol. 9, No. 10, pp.e031890.
doi:10.1136/ bmjopen-2019-031890
Okunmadewa, F. (1999). Overview of the Measurement of Poverty.
Ibadan, Nigeria: Graduate Studies Capacity Building Programme
Training Workshop.
Osanyinlusi, O., Awotide, B., Awoyemi, T., Ogunniyi, A., and Ogundipe,
A. (2017). An evaluation of rural electrification and households’
poverty in Ikole local government area, Ekiti state, Nigeria: An
293
Profiling the Wellbeing of Residents …
foster, greer and thorbecke approach, International Journal of Energy
Economics and Policy, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp.24-30.
Osunla, C. and Okoh, A., (2017). Vibrio pathogens: A public health
concern in rural water resources in sub-Saharan Africa. International
journal of environmental research and public health, Vol. 14, No. 10,
pp.1188.
Popoola, A. and Akande O. (2016). Effect of Rural Out-Migration on
Food Crop Production in the Rural Local Government Area of
Akinyele, Ibadan, Oyo State. Ife Planning Journal,Vol.5, No. 1, pp.8297.
Popoola, A. and Magidimisha, H. (2020a). The Dilemma of Rural
Planning and Planners in Oyo State, Nigeria. Bulletin of Geography, Vol.
47, No. 47, pp.75-93
Popoola, A. and Magidimisha, H. (2020b). “Investigating the Roles
Played by Selected Agencies in Infrastructure Development. M.A.
Mafukata and K.A. Tshikolomo (eds) African Perspectives on Reshaping
Rural Development (pp. 289-319). IGI Global. (ISSN: 2330-3271;
eISSN: 2330-328X)
Sewell, S., Desai, S., Mutsaa, E. and Lottering, R., (2019). A comparative
study of community perceptions regarding the role of roads as a
poverty alleviation strategy in rural areas. Journal of rural studies, Vol.
71, pp.73-84.
Tian, Y., Kong, X., and Liu, Y. (2018). Combining weighted daily life
circles and land suitability for rural settlement reconstruction. Habitat
International, Vol. 76, pp.1-9.
Townsend, L., Sathiaseelan, A., Fairhurst, G. and Wallace, C. (2013).
Enhanced broadband access as a solution to the social and economic
problems of the rural digital divide. Local Economy, Vol. 28, No. 6,
pp.580-595.
Udoh, U. (2016). Housing Conditions in Rural Nigeria: Empirical
Evidence from oil-rich Akwa Ibom State, Iranian Journal of Health,
Safety and Environment, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp.555-564
Vagale, L. (eds). (2000). Manual of Space Standard for Urban
Development. A publication of the Department of Urban and
Regional Planning, Polytechnic Ibadan, Metric Edition: Nigeria.
Velaga, N., Beecroft, M., Nelson, J., Corsar, D. and Edwards, P. (2012).
Transport poverty meets the digital divide: accessibility and
connectivity in rural communities. Journal of Transport Geography, Vol.
21, pp.102-112.
294
Popoola, Magidimisha-Chipungu & Chipungu / AJDS, Vol.12, Number 1, March 2022 pp 267-295
Wahab, B. and Popoola, A. (2019). Urban Farmers’ Perceptions of and
Adaptation Strategies to
Climate Variability in Ibadan, Nigeria. In Cobbinah, P. and Addaney, M.
(eds.), The Geography of Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Africa. pp.
123- 154. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham: Switzerland. ISSN: 978-3-03004873-0
Wossen, T., Berger, T., Haile, M. G. and Troost, C. (2018). Impacts of
climate variability and food price volatility on household income and
food security of farm households in East and West
Africa. Agricultural Systems, Vol. 163, pp.7-15.
World Bank (2013). World Development Indicators 2013. Washington,
D.C.: World Bank Available at: http://data.worldbank.org [Accessed
12 August 2021].
Yusuf, S. (2013). Sampling Techniques. In T. Agbola., L. Egunjobi. And
C.O. Olabutara (eds) Contemporary Social Science Research Methods: A
Practical Guide. Lagos, Nigeria: MURLAB Search wisdom Educational
Services Publishers, pp. 112-120
295