1
CHAPTER 1
The Problem and Its Setting
With the rapidly increasing number of learners and the emergence of new
schools in far-flung areas, the Department of Education needs to hire more
teachers. Public school teachers in the Philippines rank as the third-bestcompensated profession compared to other professionals. While other
professionals were going abroad, some were earning units in education, taking
the Licensure Examination for Teachers, and applying to the DepEd. However,
non-education graduate teachers who are teaching in public schools may face
certain
challenges
and
struggles. Lack
of
pedagogical
training,
limited
understanding of educational theories, inadequate classroom management
skills, difficulty in adapting to diverse learning styles, limited knowledge of
assessment and evaluation, less familiarity with educational technology, possible
resistance from peers and school administration and a need for continuous
professional development are among problems encounter by earning education
graduate teachers.
In the United States, for instance, schools had between 17 - 22 percent of
their core classes taught by a teacher who was not a graduate of education
courses or even someone
who
possesses
a
subject-related
degree
or
certification. Particularly for English, for instance, one-fifth of all public school
2
students enrolled in English classes in grades 7-12, or about 4,310,000 of
20,700,000 students, were taught by teachers who did not have at least a minor
in English, Literature, Communications, Speech, Journalism, English Education
or Reading Education (Ingersoll & Curran, 2004). This impacts the learning of the
students (United States Education Department, 2010). In addition, apart from the
problem in student learning as a result of having non-education teachers, US
studies reveal the reality of teachers’ attrition. In fact, 25 percent of these
teachers are ready to leave within their first year of teaching. Ingvarson, Beavis,
and Kleinhenz (2004; Du Plessis, 2013) claim that 25% to 30% of teachers in
Victoria, Australia, feel unqualified for the position in which they teach. Norway
appoints student teachers in positions outside their field of training in certain
schools with ethnic minorities because of a shortage of qualified teachers
(Bonesrønning, Falch, & Strøm, 2003; Du Plessis, 2013).
In the Philippines, it's possible for individuals in any profession, including
non-education graduate teachers, to experience frustration in performing the
task. Teaching can be a challenging and demanding profession, and various
factors can contribute to frustration these may include lack of resources of which
Inadequate teaching materials, outdated textbooks, and a lack of technological
resources can frustrate teachers who want to provide the best education for their
students. Schools in far-flung areas had no electricity where ICT integration
cannot be manipulated and technological aid is not evident. Another factor is the
large number of learners in a single classroom and managing student behavior
3
and maintaining a positive and conducive learning environment. Additionally,
bureaucratic hurdles, administrative tasks, and paperwork can add stress and
frustration to a teacher's workload. Striking a balance between professional
responsibilities and personal life can be challenging for teachers, leading to
frustration if they feel overwhelmed. Supportive colleagues, effective school
leadership, and a positive school culture can contribute to job satisfaction and
help mitigate frustration for among non-education graduates teachers.
Review of Significant Literature
This section presents the literature, readings and articles that have
bearing on the present study as taken from books, journal articles, magazines
from the internet with reliable websites. The readings were carefully chosen as to
its significant contribution to the purpose of this study which was focused on the
non-education graduates who are currently teaching in terms of dealing with
insecurities and anxieties, lack of content mastery, lack of teaching strategy and
techniques, being able to shape up and progress and coping mechanism and job
satisfaction
terms
of
job
security,
compensation,
interrelationship
and
organizational culture.
Non-education teachers
Non-education teaching is defined as the scenario where teachers teach
part or all of their workload in one or more subjects for which they lack college
degrees or credentials (Ingersoll & Curran, 2004). Another explicit definition is of
4
NÍ Ríordáin & Hannigan (2011) which defines non-education teachers as
teachers assigned by school administrators to teach subjects which do not match
their training or education. The characterization of those teachers suggest that
they are likely to give inferior performances in those duties, lacking sufficient
disciplinary knowledge to render effective teaching.
Non-education teaching varies greatly across schools, teachers and
classrooms. For instance, recently hired teachers are more often assigned to
teach subjects out of their field of training than are more experienced teachers.
Low-income public schools have higher levels of non-education teaching than do
schools in more affluent communities. Particularly notable,however, is the effect
of school size: small schools have higher levels of non-education teaching. There
are also differences within schools (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2006; Conners,
2008).
Lower-achieving classes, according to Getkin (2009) are more often
taught by teachers without a major or minor in the field than are higher-achieving
classes. Junior high classes are also more likely to be taught by non-education
teachers than are senior high classes. No doubt some non-education teachers
may actually be well qualified, despite their lack of a minor or major in the
subject. Some may be qualified by virtue of knowledge gained through previous
jobs, through life experiences, or through informal training. Others may have
completed substantial college coursework in a field but not have gotten a major
or minor.
In Georgia, for instance, because school accreditation regulations require
5
teachers to have at least 120 hours of college credit (about four courses) in a
field in order to teach it, many of those in the state who are assigned to teach out
of field probably do have some background. However, the premise was that even
a moderate number of teachers who lack the minimal prerequisite of a college
minor signals the existence of serious problems in schools. Moreover, noneducation teaching is not an aberration; it happens in well over half of the
secondary schools in the U.S. in any given year - both rural and urban, affluent
and low-income. Shifting the definition of non-education does not lessen its
severity (Hobbs, 2013).
Looking at teachers without a major or minor or teachers without
certification in their assigned fields, the numbers are similarly alarming. Indeed,
when the definition of a "qualified" teachers includes only those who hold both a
college major and a teaching certificate in the field, the amount of non-education
teaching substantially increases. Moreover, the problem does not appear to be
going away: levels of non-education teaching changed very little between the late
1980s and the mid 1990s. The negative implications of such high levels of
noneducation teaching are obvious. The crucial question and the source of great
misunderstanding is why so many teachers are teaching subjects for which they
have little background (Loveys, 2011).
According to studies, teacher capability has a direct impact on student
achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Higgins & Boone, 2011). Teacher
practice in the classroom is affected by the content knowledge and pedagogical
skills of the teacher, with the quality and the level of their qualification deemed
6
paramount (Ingvarson et al., 2004). Hence, the obvious impact of non-education
teaching among learners.
Teachers enter the education profession and are attracted to teaching as
a career because of what they view as the role of the teacher (Anhorn, 2008).
Educators experience contentment in their role as a teacher because of the
passion they have for teaching students and the subject matter (Loui, 2006).
Despite the fulfillment and satisfaction many teachers experience in educating
children in the classroom, Roulston, Legette, and Womack (2005)posited that 33
percent of teachers resign from the education profession within the first three
years of teaching. An abundance of past and current literature supports that 25 to
50 percent of novice teachers leave the education profession within the first five
years, showing an ongoing trend of the problem (Bang, Kern, Luft, & Roehrig,
2007; Ingersoll, 2011; Massengill, Mahlios, & Barry, 2005; National Education
Association [NEA], 2006; Painter, Haladyna, & Hurwitz, 2007; Schulz, 2005;
Yost, 2006).
As opined by Bullock and Russell (2010), effective teaching, to achieve its
goals, has a number of vital elements and one of which is the teacher. The
students can be affected by what he says and how he says it. He believes that
the teacher is the ultimate key to educational change. The composition of
national
and
provincial
curricula
and
the
development
of
benchmark
assessments are of little value if they do not take the teacher into account. The
language teacher has a number of duties and responsibilities to guarantee
7
language learning success. He must have knowledge and skill in the language.
On one hand, the instructor must have the knowledge and skill to teach the
language. Also, the teacher must have the training, personality characteristics,
and ability to teach the fundamentals of the language to the students.
Decisions concerning the hiring and the allocation of teachers to course
and program assignments are primarily the responsibility and prerogative of
school principals (Ingersoll, 2011). The latter are charged with the often difficult
task of providing a broad array of programs and courses with limited resources, a
limited budget, and a limited teaching staff. Along with these limitations,
principals’ staffing decisions can also be constrained by numerous other factors,
such as teacher union work rules, teacher seniority issues, school district
regulations, class-size guidelines, and contractual obligations concerning the
number and type of class assignments allocated to teaching employees.
Dealing with insecurities and anxieties
While teachers influence what happens in the classroom, they play the
“leading role” in the teaching and learning environment. Teachers who reflect
self-doubt about managing particular matters, displaying a lack of or a total
absence of engagement, influence what happens in the classroom (Lingard,
2010). This has also been consistently identified in the literature (e.g., Ahn, 2011;
Ghatage, 2009; Kuchah, 2009; Littlewood,2007). In the study of Steyn and Du
Plessis (2007), non-education teachers are said to experience emotional stress
when they feel they are not in control of their teaching
situation
and
this
8
develops into behavioral concerns. As a result, teachers’ self-esteem suffers;
they become over-critical of their own teaching which in turn influences their
relationships with other stakeholders. It was also pointed out by Van Niekerk
(2003) that the
disturbances in confident interaction and communication,
guidance, well-articulated objectives, suitable decisions, and classroom control
often result in social pressure within the classroom and school environment.
These may cause feelings of anxiety in teachers and students (Huberty, 2013).
On the other hand, classroom models where confident teachers partner
with
students
in
constructive
learning
ventures
and
practice
positive
interdependence, enhances social learning and integration (Joyce, Weil,
and Calhoun, 2000). In the case of non-education teaching, many teachers
believe that the demands are so high that they have to double their time and
effort to learn everything which causes anxiety and leads to teachers’
questioning their competence (Kuchah, 2009).
In addition, Levine (2006) contends that one of the most prominent
viewpoints in this debate holds that the problem of low-quality teaching can be
traced to inadequate and insufficient employment training and licensing or
certification of prospective teachers. In this view, the preparation of teachers in
college or university teacher education programs, and government certification
standards, all too often lack adequate rigor, breadth and depth, resulting in high
levels of under qualified teachers and low student performance. Continuous,
honest and effective reflection on classroom management skills are necessary
for success and depend on teacher dispositions and personality: a positive,
9
confident,
expectant
and
relaxed
strategy,
which enhances
teachers’
authoritative leadership in the classroom (Rogers and McPherson, 2008).
Moreover, passion for an out-of-field subject overcomes the lack of
suitable qualifications but self-doubt and lack of confidence impact teachers in
out-of-field positions. Emotions displayed by non-education graduate teachers
are
often perceived as disturbing the stability of an effective learning
environment (Smith, 2008). As Jennings and Greenberg (2009) describes,
classrooms are learning spaces loaded with emotions and dispositions, often
mentioned as the atmosphere inside the classroom. Teachers’ dispositions
and
emotional competence
often
set
the
classroom
climate,
with
an
influence on student outcomes. These dispositions and emotions impact the
atmosphere of the learning space and develop specific classroom politics, for
example,
students are not allowed to ask too many questions or no time
allowance is made for in depth discussions.
Confident teachers do not avoid inherent classroom emotions, but develop
effective classroom management skills where emotions, tensions, personal
encounters and experiences are maintained while embracing subject-focused
pedagogies (Redmond, 2010). Teachers develop the classroom atmosphere as
the environment or space where teachers and students meet for meaningful
learning to take place, effective learning spaces are necessary (Bourdieu, 2010).
Moreover, Armstrong (2006) also adds that although teachers are the biggest
predictor of a student’s success, educational leaders do not accommodate
the challenges faced by teachers in specific schools environments or areas.
10
McConney and Price further explain how these schools, e.g. small urban
schools, rely on the practice to assign top-up subjects to teachers.
Groundwater-Smith, Ewing, and Le Cornu (2011) claim circumstances that have
an impact on a secure and constructive learning and teaching atmosphere can
cause constant anxiety and end in teacher burnout.
As explained by Hattingh and De Kock (2008), the effective transition of
graduate teachers into the teaching profession goes together with personal
transformation, abandoning profound belief structures whichare often traumatic.
They further describe the experience as chaotic transformation of existing social
structures, personal identity, knowledge and competences. Du Plessis, Carroll,
and Gillies (2013) meanwhile discuss the significant meaning that different
leadership models have for the lived experiences of novice non-education
graduate teachers in different settings.
Experienced teachers, according to the Australian Education Union (AEU)
(2009), are being moved from lower year levels to cover senior school
mathematics. The widespread occurrence and increase of out-of-field situations
cause these teachers to develop perceptions of unworthiness. Cochran-Smith
and Lytle (2006) discuss how extreme focus on content knowledge develops
perceptions that highly qualified teachers can fix everything, which leaves
unsuitably qualified teachers to question their effectiveness.
Studies (Boaler, 2002; Grootenboer & Zevenbergen, 2008)revealed that if
a non-education graduate teacher teaching mathematics is not able to develop
an appropriate identity and a set of good attitudes towards her profession, his or
11
her students will not do either. Gu (2011) also mentioned that diligence was one
of the true qualities of a teacher in different facets of their profession. As he said,
in order for teachers to successfully address the different challenges of their
profession, they themselves need to be practical, serious, diligent, rigorous,
responsible, and demonstrate a high moral and ethical code so as to act as role
models for their students.
Lack of Content Mastery
In addition, Ingvarson, Beavis,
Bishop,
Peck,
&
Elsworth
(2004)
emphasize that teacher practice in the classroom is affected by the content
knowledge and pedagogical skills of the teacher, with the quality and the level of
their qualifications deemed paramount. Hence, teacher capability has a direct
impact
on
student
achievement
(Darling-Hammond,
2000;
Higgins and
Boone, 2011). Across the educational systems of the world, few issues have
received more attention in the recent years than the problem of ensuring that
elementary and secondary-school classrooms are staffed with qualified and
competent teachers. Even in nations were students routinely score high on
standardized exams, teacher quality is the subject of much concern. This is not
surprising. Elementary and secondary schooling is mandatory in almost all
nations and children are legally placed in the care of teachers for a significant
portion of their lives. It is widely believed that the quality of teachers and teaching
are among the most important factors shaping the learning and growth of
12
students. Moreover, the impact goes beyond student academic achievement
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2014).
Meanwhile, Eppley (2009) asserts that class size, which is clearly more
salient in public schools than in private schools where numbers are generally
lower, is often linked to behavior problems and also exacerbates issues arising
from non-education teaching. Ho (2003), Shamim (2012), and Wedgewood
(2007) also confirmed that large classes are a common challenge causing
teachers to believe it is difficult or impossible to introduce learner centered
teaching because, for example, they cannot closely monitor students. Effective
and competent teachers constantly re-commit to the fundamental principles
of teaching while they embrace pedagogies that support them in realizing
the specific needs of the students in their classrooms (Sayeski, 2009).
Currently, teachers are expected to be highly qualified, act as content
experts, understand effective teaching methods, and document progress in every
student (Jones, 2011). Being assigned to teach outside their area of
specialization, teachers face considerable challenges in lesson preparation and
teaching the subject which is called pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman,
1986, 1987). First of all, they need to understand the structure and nature of the
discipline and learn unfamiliar content knowledge, which is known as subject
matter knowledge. Secondly, they need to transform the content knowledge into
suitable activities, analogies, demonstrations or simulations and adapt them to
the different students’ abilities to help them learn.
13
Studies show that lack of content mastery denies the students of the kind
of learning that they should be experiencing as identified from different studies
(Childs and McNicholl, 2007; Kind, 2009; Kind and Kind, 2011). Within their field
of expertise, teachers had a wide knowledge base of the subject, knew the
subjectin more depth and were able to draw links between different areas of
knowledge in the same subject discipline (Abell, 2008; Davis, Petish, & Smithey,
2007).
Within
effective
school
environments,
knowledgeable
teachers
successfully assist students to focus on learning new problem solving strategies,
understanding and mastering specific tasks, and exploring the use of deep
learning and reasoning strategies (McInerney & McInerney, 2006). Hence,
teachers’ knowledge base strongly influences all aspects of teaching like
preparation, planning and decision making regarding the choice of content to be
learnt (De Jong, Veal, & Van Driel, 2002). The level of subject-matter knowledge
greatly influences how the subject is taught (Kind & Kind, 2011) and that when
teachers have a stronger subject matter knowledge, they are more likely to
engage in sophisticated teaching practices (Davis et al., 2007).
In the study of Childs and McNicholl (2007) where they explored
nonScience majors assigned to teach Science subjects, a picture of science
teaching outside a teacher’s subject specialism was pictured out as limited,
unadventurous and lacking cognitive challenge. However, some studies also
argue that when facing unfamiliar subject content, teachers resort to a range of
strategies to deal with these challenges (Childs & McNicholl, 2007; Kind, 2009).
These findings are consistent with the findings of another study conducted by
14
Sanders (2003) dealing with three experienced teachers teaching within and
outside their area of expertise. Experienced teachers sometimes act like novice
teachers when teaching outside
subject
specialism.
They
encounter
difficulties in planning lessons because they are uncertain of the time required
to develop different concepts, how to sequence the content, how concepts are
interrelated and have difficulties in deciding what was important. Lessons outside
the area of expertise did not flow as smoothly as within their area of expertise.
They make quick and frequent changes and are unable to build explanations in
response to students’ questions.
Similarly, in other studies (Kind, 2009; Kind & Kind, 2011) trainee teachers
are also concerned in answering subject-related questions and theability to
handle questions depended on their self-confidence. It was pointed out by Van
Driel, De Jong and Verloop (2002) that when teachers with good content
knowledge are also more aware of the students’ difficulties and misconceptions
and make use of strategies to induce conceptual change. Unlike non-education
teachers, more knowledgeable teachers can make many subject-matter
knowledge. They could expand activities or generate their own activities, ask
higher-level questions, detect students’ misconceptions and deal effectively with
students’ difficulties. On the other hand, teachers teaching outside subject
specialization, with lower background subject-matter knowledge, followed the
textbook structure quite closely, could not generate new activities and asked
recall questions. They could not detect students’ misconceptions and in some
cases they reinforced these ideas.
15
Underlined also by Barber and Mourshed (2007) is the importance of
principals’ provision of pedagogical leadership in the best-performing countries,
and evidence isalso provided by White et al. (2006), Hustler et al.
(2003),
Hobson et al. (2007) and Bryant, Linan-Thompson, Ugel, Hamff, & Hougen
(2001). This is obviously not a factor that can be built into externally provided
teacher development programmes, but it is worth thinking about by school
leaders when planning and implementing these programmes. On the other hand,
Haycock (2000) emphasized that school principals not only
have
the
responsibility for deciding who teaches which courses and programs, but
also have an unusual degree of discretion in these decisions. Although teachers
are subject to elaborate certification requirements to ensure their basic
preparation and competence, there has been little regulation of how teachers
are employed and utilized once they are on the job. Teacher employment
regulations are weak or rarely enforced, and most cities routinely allow local
school administrators to bypass even the limited requirements. In this context,
assigning teachers to teach out of their fields is a useful and acceptable
administrative practice. A report of the Australian Government Productivity
Commission (2012) claimed
that
difficulties in assigning suitably
principals admitted
qualified
teachers
in
they
some
experience
subjects.
There is however the expectation that these teachers will be as effective as
their suitably qualified colleagues. The source of out-of-field teaching lies not
in
the
amount
of education teachers have, but in the lack of fit between
teachers' fields of training and their teaching assignments. Many teachers are
16
assigned by their principals to teach classes that do not match their training or
education.
Lack of Teaching Strategies and Techniques
In addition, non-education teachers, according to Kind (2009), are less
confident at trying out new things, are less creative and did not develop their own
ideas in preparing lessons outside their area of expertise but followed the
traditional methods. In a study by Childs & McNicholl (2007) with novice and
experienced teachers, it was reported that lessons outside subject specialism
were tightly controlled and included less discussions, open-ended questions,
anecdotes, illustrations and analogies. Practical work was closely directed and
textbooks were used more often. Lessons taught outside of subject specialization
were perceived to be rigid and constrained. Different strategies are influenced by
the degree a teacher feels at home in a specific subject area or year group. The
classroom serves as a micro cosmos where social skills are practiced; the
teacher’s actions and reactions have implications for the part that students
play in the
understanding
societal context of effective classroom management and their
of
the
learning experience (Childs & McNicholl, 2007).
Teachers with a lack of pedagogical content knowledge are hesitant to explore
new pedagogical strategies for fear of a negative outcome on students’
performance and results and the possibility of damaging their own career
(Pintrich and Schunk, 2012). In support of this argument, Hall and Hord (2011)
explain how dissatisfied teachers develop into self-absorbed teachers, who place
17
focus on personal decisions and needs as a result of uncertainties while their
vision is usually set on short-term (day to day) goals with teaching for survival
dispositions.
In line with this, Rivers and Brackett (2011) recommend few techniques for
classroom management. Teachers may, for example, exchange instructional
materials and meet regularly with their co-teachers for discussions about
individual students. More sophisticated forms of cooperation among teachers
include collective learning activities such as observing others and providing
feedback and engaging in professional learning activities and joint activities. It is
also stated by Steinert et al. (2006) that in Germany and Switzerland, co
operative
practices
involving
the
definition
of
common
goals
and
communication and coordination of curricula, teaching practices and marks
within grades and groups of teachers of a given subjectare more common than
comprehensive coordination of instruction, didactics and diagnostics across
grades and subject groups and systematic observation of instruction and the
learning development of students and collaborative professional development.
Furthermore, different kinds of collaboration may nothave the same
effects. Clement and Vandenberghe (2000) argue for examplethat, in order to
enhance “progressive professionalism”, cooperation has to encompass exchange
of ideas and attitudes at a deeper level, not simply collective practical problem
solving. Meanwhile, school and classroom management are meaningfully
influenced by individuals within the wider school context, e.g. parents, specialist
teachers and principals (Freiberg & Driscoll, 2010). Meaningful interactions are
18
essential for forming a link between the classroom, the school and the wider
school community (Lonsdale & Anderson, 2012). The development of a link
between the school and the community is also crucial to develop effective
learning and teaching environments. Meanwhile, Eppley (2009)
asserts that
class size, which is clearly more salient in public schools than in private schools
where numbers are generally Being able to shape up progress lower, is often
linked to behavior problems and also exacerbates issues arising from noneducation teaching. Ho (2003), Shamim (2012), and Wedgewood (2007)
also confirmed that large classes are a common challenge causing teachers
to believe it is difficult or impossible to introduce learner centered teaching
because, for example, they cannot closely monitor students.
A study by Steinert et al. (2006) contends that in order to achieve complex
objectives such as quality of education and school development, common goals
and cooperation among the staff are required, who facilitate the coordination of
resources and strategies of individual teachers, since no teacher can achieve
such goals alone. Furthermore, cooperation among staff creates opportunities for
social and emotional support, exchange of ideas and practical advice. It can thus
enhance professionalism and feelings of self-efficacy and prevent stress and
burnout (e.g. Rosenholtz, 1989; Clement & Vandenberghe,2000.
Being able to shape up and progress
Teachers’ professional identity stands at the core of the teaching
profession. It provides a framework for teachers to construct their own ideas of
19
‘how to be’, ‘how to act’ and ‘how to understand’ their work (Sachs, 2005).
According to Akkerman and Bakker (2011), boundaries and crossing of
boundaries mediate a deliberate target of change. All teachers accept the
challenge of teaching out-of-field willingly because they deem it possible to learn
the necessary content and teaching approaches. After some initial apprehension
and with support, coordination of boundary objects, and successful experiences,
they have broadened their identity to encompass the new role. Ibarra (2009) calls
provisional versions of a new self on her way to developing a fully elaborated
professional identity that includes an non-education graduate teacher. Teachers
play a central role in the concept development of students (Hattie, 2009).
Teachers bring knowledge into perspective for students, teachers guide students
to make sense of the world around them and understand their place in history.
The influence of effective teachers on the quality of knowledge and
social
interaction in classrooms has major implications for students’ performance
(Gillies & Boyle, 2011).
The impact sphere of teachers goes beyond the classroom. Teachers’
expertise, practices
and dispositions toward transforming classrooms into
cooperative learning environments where individuals develop to complement,
support and stand together in reaching a common goal, are at the centre of their
impact sphere (Gillies & Boyle, 2011; Lingard, Hayes, Mills, & Christie, 2003).
Effective teachers improve the scaffolding of students’ construction of knowledge
by linking previous understanding to new information in a process where they
analyze, integrate and move to critical thinking and problem solving (Gillies,
20
2009).
Teachers assigned to positions without necessary training or
qualifications can require complex management strategies (Darling-Hammond,
2010). There is no question that the teaching force could benefit from upgraded
education and training and that education degrees should include substantial
coursework in an academic discipline. A professional development program for
non-education graduate teachers should not only spend time on fostering
subject-related cognitive competencies. Of course, this is necessary and
important; but in addition to that, in-service training courses should have an eye
on the teachers’ subject-related identity. Beauchamp and Thomas (2009) are
convinced that being able to explain out-offield teaching in such a holistic way
leads to a better understanding for designing effective and successful
professional development.
Studies indicate that when teachers engage in mentoring and coaching,
they become more focused in their aims and versatile in their approaches
(Harvey, 2009; Kohler, Ezell & Paluselli, 2009; Andrews, 2006); they benefit from
modelling (Kimmel, Deek, Farrell, & O’Shea, 2009) and become more confident
and enthusiastic (Wilkins, 2007; Hobson et al., 2006, 2007). Note that benefits
accrue to the mentor as well as to the mentee (Ganser, 2006; Furlong &
Salisbury, 2005). In the investigation of Day et al. (2006) among 300 UK
primary and secondary teachers as variables that correlated with their schools’
national value added, ratings
resilience
that
both
mentoring/coaching
revealed the existence of commitment and
collaborative
develop
professional
development
and
in teachers. Another important feature of good
21
teacher development identified in the systematic review by Cordingley, Bell,
Thomason, and Firth (2005) is the sustaining of professional development
over time,
which
allows teachers to embed effective practices into their
classrooms. This is confirmed by Bryant et al. (2010).
Meanwhile, it was strongly suggested by Armstrong (2006) that teachers’
professional welfare, which includes developing confidence as competent
teachers, a positive self-concept and effective self-management, should be a
priority for school leaders.
Suitably qualified and competent teachers are
successful in applying pedagogies in concord with specific course designs
informed by research (Dorman & McDonald, 2005) to form an integrated whole
between existing and new knowledge. Nielsen (2007) claims that functioning
outside their field of qualification not only influences teachers’ skills and
deprofessionalizes them but also influences their vocational rights as employees.
Approving to the study of Scheerens and Bosker (2007) suggested that
maintaining the quality of instruction is fundamental to student learning. When
reviewing contemporary research on school effectiveness, they concluded that
instructional characteristics of instruction have a greater effect on student
achievement than the school environment. It is also argued that the practice of
out-of-field teaching has the potential to have negative and inequitable effects on
student outcomes, particularly for those students in poor communities and small,
rural or remote schools (Darling Hammond, 2000; Ingersoll, 2003; Ingersoll &
Curran, 2004). For instance, it has been suggested that there is a much higher
incidence of teaching out-of-field in poor communities,
rural
and
remote
22
schools and metropolitan schools considered ‘hard to staff.’ The employment of
under-qualified teachers, including the requirement for teachers to teach out-offield, is argued to be one of the major contributors to the relative
underachievement of students in these schools (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Put
carefully, non-education
graduate-teachers
are
faced
with considerable
knowledge-gaps concerning different facets of their professional competence.
These gaps in turn affect their capability to act effectively in the classroom, to
provide high quality lessons, and to support sustainably students’ performances
(Richter, Kuhl, Haag, & Pant, 2013).
Being perceived as competent in the classroom is important for teachers
(Hattie, 2009) and being in an out-of-field situation where they experience a lack
of subject knowledge hampers a positive outlook about the out-of-field
experience. Some teachers try to cover their gaps in content knowledge in order
to uphold an image of being in control of their subject.
Coping mechanism
This is similar with the observations of Bourdieu (1979), that most non
education teachers are able to cope eventually. As he added, expectations of
audiences are powerful and that adjustments and omissions take place
afterwards to create an expected space for progress. However, the expectation
that teachers in non-education graduate situations will learn from their
experiences are contradicted by Darling-Hammond (2010) in which he mentioned
that unsuitably qualified teachers might not learn the right thing from their
23
experiences. Teachers and school leaders with positive dispositions develop
meaningful learning and teaching environments to the advantage of all students
(Bondesio and De Witt, 2004). The opposite happens when already vulnerable
teachers are constantly exposed to changes in the subjects and year levels they
teach while lacking the necessary support (Du Plessis, 2010).
Darling-Hammond (2010) also mentions that unsuitably qualified teachers
might not learn the right thing from their experiences. Non-education graduate
teachers value their school-based experience more highly than any other aspect
of their training (Hobson et al., 2006). For teachers to become more effective,
Barber and Mourshed (2007) provide compelling evidence of the value of teacher
development that is concrete and classroom-based. When development takes
place in the classroom, teachers build practical skills both during initial teacher
education (ITE) and in the course of continuing professional development (CPD)
(Fleer and Robbins, 2003; White, Lim and Chiew, 2006; Meeus, van Petegem
and Meijer, 2008; Andrews, 2006; Bryant, Linan-Thompson, Ugel,Hamff, and
Hougen, 2010).
Teachers’ critical self-reflection of who they are as professionals has
meaning for their identity development, according to Day, Kington, Stobart, and
Sammons (2006). Moreover, Hobbs (2013) explains how teachers’ identities are
influenced by non-education
graduate teaching,
while
focusing on
their
commitment and beliefs about their roles as teachers. Dispositions are more
noticeable depending on specific circumstances and times. Focus turns then to
the environment and circumstances in which non education graduate teachers
24
function and on what stage of their teaching career they function in these
positions. The practical implications of emotional experiences and dispositions
in relation to the out-of-field experience showed a concern
with
support;
disposition is grounded in what teachers identify as necessary to become
effective at a specific time in a specific educational setting and their beliefs about
what they have to offer (Freeman, 2007).
As suggested by Ashman and Gillies (2013), effective mediation and
facilitation within the learning environment are fundamental for meaningful
teaching to take place as it guides and enables the construction of new
knowledge and learning strategies. The level to which students might understand
their own behavior depends on how teachers characteristically exercise and
adjust classroom management strategies and skills (Rogers & McPherson, 2008)
according to the specific needs in the classroom situation. It was highlighted by
McConney and Price (2009) that school management is often reluctant to
make the extent of out-of-field teaching at their public schools because of the
impact it might have on the reputation and image of their schools; this influences
the accuracy of reports on the situation, underlining the secrecy Ingersoll
(2003) discusses. Although non-education graduate teachers cause a major
distraction for subject coordinators because of their specific needs such as extra
support, mentoring and specific resources (McConney & Price, 2009), school
leaders still find it difficult to openly acknowledge the occurrence of the outof-field situation in their schools.
25
As cited by Zepeda (2006), there are also pro-active approaches whereby
the expertise of colleagues supports the non-education graduate teacher and
assists these teachers to cope with their teaching position.Zepeda further noted
that it is short sighted not to focus on individual teachers’ needs and differentiate
professional development according to these needs. Emotional experiences in
relation to out-of-field teaching call on parents to play a more prominent
supportive role in the learning and teaching environment. Darling-Hammond
(2010) claimed that key educational resources inside and outside school, such as
parents, can also influence outcomes.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is the individual's general attitude towards his job, the
difference between the amount of reward received, and the amount that workers
believe should be accepted (Robbins, 2013). Another understanding of job
satisfaction is a collection of various feelings and a person's belief in his current
job (George, 2012). Job satisfaction can affect the behavior of employees in the
company where he works, which can lead to high turnover intention. George
(2012) explains four factors that affect
job satisfaction
as follows: (1)
Personality, are the nature of a person as a determinant of how he thinks and
feels satisfied with his work; (2) Values, reflect the employee's belief in achieving
the results of his work and how to behave in action; (3) The work situation, which
includes an interest in
work,
social
relations
with
superiors
and
the
surrounding environment, security and justice in the provision of salaries and
26
benefits; and (4) Social influence, the influence of individuals or groups on a
person's attitudes and behavior. Employee job satisfaction is needed because it
is the main reason why employees remain in the company. Based on this the
company needs to focus on employee welfare, which can affect job
satisfaction and job loyalty so that employees can make a maximum
contribution to the company.
Study of Vizano, et. Al (2020) labeled several studies pertaining to job
satisfaction is when workers rate their jobs and make them happier or unhappy
(Rahman, 2017). Youcef, et al. (2016) report that job satisfaction is a
combination of psychological, physiological, and environmental factors that
genuinely lead an employee to claim they are pleased with their jobs. Badriyah
(2015) claims that workers are fulfilled with their employers. Hasibuan (2016)
therefore describes work satisfaction as the emotional status of employees when
input offered by a work is matched with feedback from employees. Employee
feedback in this case is how much material or non-material. Hardiansyah, et al.
(2018) describe the meaning of job satisfaction, namely as a positive emotion
about one's job which is the result of an evaluation of one's individuality. This job
satisfaction is individual, the level of satisfaction between one individual and
another varies. Usually each individual will feel satisfied with his work if the work
done is in accordance with the hopes and goals of his work. According to
Wibowo (2007), citing the opinion of Kreitner and Kinicki, there are five factors
that can influence job satisfaction, including fulfillment of needs, differences,
value achievement, justice, and dispositional or genetic components. There are
27
five indicators of job satisfaction described by Luthans (2006), including: (1)
Satisfaction with salaries, (2) Satisfaction with the job itself, (3) Satisfaction with
promotion opportunities, (4) Satisfaction with supervision / supervision, (5)
Satisfaction with colleagues.
Study of Murtiningsih (2019) defined job satisfaction is the individual's
general attitude towards his job, the difference between the amount of reward
received, and the amount that workers believe should be accepted (Robbins,
2013). Another understanding of job satisfaction is a collection of various feelings
and a person's belief in his current job (George, 2012). Job satisfaction can affect
the behavior of employees in the company where he works, which can lead to
high turnover intention. George (2012) explains four factors that affect job
satisfaction as follows: (1) Personality, are the nature of a person as a
determinant of how he thinks and feels satisfied with his work; (2) Values, reflect
the employee's belief in achieving the results of his work and how to behave in
action; (3) The work situation, which includes an interest in work, social relations
with superiors and the surrounding environment, security and justice in the
provision of salaries and benefits; and (4) Social influence, the influence of
individuals or groups on a person's attitudes and behavior. Employee job
satisfaction is needed because it is the main reason why employees remain in
the company. Based on this the company needs to focus on employee welfare,
which can affect job satisfaction and job loyalty so that employees can make a
maximum contribution to the company. His study revealed a result that
compensation has a positive effect on job satisfaction. Employee job satisfaction
28
is needed because it is the main reason employees remain in the company
(George, 2013). Based on this, companies
welfare,
which
can
affect
job
need
satisfaction
to
focus
on
employee
and
job
loyalty,
thereby
increasing employee retention and making a maximum contribution to the
company (Denton, 2000).
Study of Prasetio, Luturlean and Agathanisa (2019) outlined a ob
satisfaction is known to have a positive influence on the survival of the
organization. Uzer (2017) argue that happy employee will make customers
happy. This mean that job satisfaction can have positive impact on business
result. Recently, business leaders have begun to focus on how to increase
employee happiness. Big companies like Googles and Facebooks provide
impressive office perks such as napping pods, cafes, and game rooms. They
want their employees to feel enjoy and relax but still provide great contributions.
Companies that have tried to increase employee’s job satisfaction seem to have
realized that from this satisfaction they will get far greater benefits. Robbins and
Judge (2017) poses the outcomes of job satisfaction including job performance,
organizational citizenship behavior, customer satisfaction and life satisfaction.
Otherwise employee’s dissatisfaction will result in non-productive work behavior,
absenteisme, turnover, and employee voice (complaint). This is reinforced by
Griffin & Moorehead (2014) that a satisfied employee tends to be absent less
often, to make positive contributions, and to stay with the organization, while
dissatisfied employee may be absent more often, may experience stress that
disrupts coworkers, and may be continually looking for another job. Recent
29
studies also confirm these ideas. Prasetio et al. (2017) who studied hotel
employees found that job satisfaction significantly has positive effect on affective
commitment and organizational citizenship behavior. Job satisfaction also has
positive correlation with work motivation (Maharjan, 2012). Job performance and
employee loyalty can also increase by developing job satisfaction (Onsardi et al.,
2016; Darma & Supriyanto, 2017). Retail industry facing tremendous challenges.
This is indicated by increasing number of new stores from competitors, the
emergence of new regulation from government, and recently they also hit by new
business of e-commerce. As a result, they have to deal with decreasing customer
and also to find new approach to keep the business. One of their strength lies in
their human resources. They need to be able to make them enjoy what they do. It
is important to make employees experience high job satisfaction. The result of
the study hopefully will benefit the organization in helping them to find the right
option to boost employee job satisfaction.
Study of Idris, Adi, Soetjipto, Supriyanto (2020) described job satisfaction
has a pivotal role in improving employee performance. It provides enthusiasm
and high motivation to employees to increase productivity. On the other hand, to
improve employee performance, the organization provides compensation based
on established standards and in an environment that is, sometimes, less
conducive. This study purposes to examine the mediating role of job satisfaction
on compensation, work environment, and employee performance at State
Polytechnic colleges in Indonesia. This study found that compensation has no
impact on job satisfaction and employee performance. In addition, job
30
satisfaction cannot mediate the compensation and employee performance.
However, the work environment positively and significantly affects job satisfaction
and employee performance. Job satisfaction has impact on work environment
and employee performance. It also influences employee performance positively
and significantly. Thus, job satisfaction directly or indirectly can be a mediator for
the relationship between work environment and employee performance. Job
satisfaction is a significant aspect in the practice of organizational behavior and
human resource management. Job satisfaction could affect happiness, morale,
and employee motivation in increasing productivity (Mabaso & Dlamini, 2017).
Job satisfaction is a close personal entity that can be felt by those concerned.
Owusu (2014) states that job satisfaction is a feeling of preference or satisfaction
with one's work or experience at work. This condition can lead employees to a
condition where they can improve their performance level. Meanwhile, in different
conditions, emotionally dissatisfied with work, can cause low performance of
employees. On the other hand, high performance is very important for
organizations to achieve what has been the goal.
Furthermore, to improve employee satisfaction, the work environment has
proven to be a trigger for employees to feel satisfied with what they have been
doing so that they will work more effectively and efficiently in helping the
organization achieve its goals. The role of job satisfaction as compensation
mediation on employee performance has been proven to have no effect either
partially or simultaneously. Meanwhile, job satisfaction as a mediator in work
environment and employee performance is proven positively and significantly.
31
This shows that the work environment can improve employee performance both
directly and indirectly through job satisfaction (Idris, Adi, Soetjipto, Supriyanto,
2020).
Compensation
Globally, observers routinely tie the performance of teachers to numerous,
larger societal goals and problems - economic competitiveness and productivity,
juvenile delinquency, moral and civic culture, and so on. In addition, the largest
single component of the cost of education in any country typically is teacher
compensation. Along with a general consensus among many nations that the
quality of teachers and teaching is a vital resource, there is accordingly much
concern surrounding how equitably this resource is distributed within educational
systems. Indeed, some nations suffer from an apparent paradox - that despite an
overall overproduction and oversupply of new teachers, there nevertheless
appear to be substantial numbers of students without access to qualified
teachers. Thus, the focus on teachers' professional development should be on
teachers' learning, learning how to learn, and transforming knowledge into
practice for student growth (Avalos, 2011).
Prasetio, Luturlean and Agathanisa (2019) stated compensation includes
any forms of payments from organization to employee because of their
contribution in doing their jobs (Dessler, 2013). There are two types of
compensation;
direct
financial
(including
wages,
salaries,
incentives,
commissions, and bonuses) and indirect financial (benefits such as insurance,
32
vacations, child/family support). Martocchio (2015) defined that compensation
can be in the form of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards received by employees for
performing the jobs. Other definition from Gomez-Mejia et al. (2012) defined
compensation as the package of quantifiable rewards from organization to their
employee for their labours. Mondy & Martocchio (2016) gave detail explanation
of compensation as the total of all rewards provided for employees in return for
their work. The components of this total compensation program include direct
and indirect financial compensation and nonfinancial compensation. Payments in
terms of wages, salary, commissions, and bonuses classified as direct financial
compensation whereas family and medical leave, social security, healthcare, life
insurance, retirement plan, & stock option are part of indirect financial
compensation. From previous thoughts it can be concluded that compensation is
a form of appreciation or reward in form of financial or nonfinancial from the
company for the work that has been done by their employees. Company need to
carefully set up its compensation packages. We understand the importance of
compensation both for employee and organization. Attractive compensation
program can attract and retain outstanding employees. In some degree
compensation also prove to increase employee loyalty and even their
performance. Competitive compensation can provide company with advantages
in terms of their ability to keep good performers
Study of Murtiningsih 2019 found that based on the dynamic environment
that many organizations face today, the developing trend is to create more
flexible wage systems and reduce the amount of the wage level. In this case,
33
most importantly, it is the implementation of a fair, equal, and motivating
compensation system that allows organizations to recruit and maintain a
productive workforce (Robbins & Coulter, 2016). Compensation is a form of
appreciation given to employees for services and contributions provided to
organizations or companies (Panggabean, 2011). Compensation (reward) is a
tool used by a leader to appreciate employee performance (Chelangat &
Gachunga, 2016). Another definition of compensation is financial and nonfinancial benefits received by employees through work relationships through the
organization (Jehanzep et al., (2012). By providing appropriate compensation to
employees, organizations can increase employee retention (Anis, 2011),
(Chandiok, 2012) and (Neog, 2015).
Further, his study told that retaining qualified and skilled employees is
always a challenge for organizations in facing competition. Based on the results
of this research, it can be concluded that compensation has a positive impact on
Job Satisfaction and Employee Retention. Training and development has a
positive impact on Job Satisfaction but does not have a positive impact on
Employee Retention. Organizational Culture does not have a positive impact on
either Job Satisfaction or Employee Retention. Job satisfaction has a positive
impact on Employee Retention. Though Training & Development do not directly
affect Employee Retention in this research, they have a positive impact on
Employee Retention through Job Satisfaction. Thus, the efficiency and
effectiveness of Training & Development need to be improved to increase
Employee Retention. Likewise, Organizational Culture needs to be strengthened
34
to increase Job Satisfaction and Employee Retention. Compensation directly
and positively affects both Job Satisfaction and Employee Retention. Therefore,
companies must always provide reasonable compensation for their employees.
Likewise, Organizational Culture needs to be strengthened so that employees
feel a more pleasant working atmosphere, higher work discipline, and better
working relationships, thereby increasing Job Satisfaction and Employee
Retention. This research has limitations that need to be refined in future studies,
namely the number of research samples which only amount to 150, so it cannot
be generalized to all companies in Jakarta. For future studies, we can use more
samples from several other companies and increase the dimensions of the
variables studied. Besides, we can also add other variables related to job
satisfaction and employee retention.
Furthermore, the study showed that the higher the perception of
compensation, the higher the perception of job satisfaction. The higher the
perception of training and development, the higher the perception of job
satisfaction. The higher the perception of compensation, the higher the
perception of employee retention. there is an effect of employee job satisfaction
on employee retention. The higher the perception of employee job satisfaction,
the higher the perception of employee retention. From the results of the analysis,
it can be seen that compensation and training & development have a positive
effect on job satisfaction, but organizational culture does not have a positive
impact on job satisfaction. Likewise, compensation has a positive impact on
employee retention, but training & development and organizational culture do not
35
have a positive impact on employee retention. Furthermore, job satisfaction has
a positive impact on employee retention.
Prasetio, Luturlean and Agathanisa (2019) posited that employees who
perceive they have done more work but receive low rewards will likely to show
negative emotions and sustained stress responses (Siegrist, 2012; Weyer et al.,
2006; Smith et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2014; Danish et al., 2015; Manyamba &
Ngezi, 2017). Yet this study found that there is no relation between these
variables. Thus reaffirm that compensation was one of the biggest influencer in
developing job satisfaction. According to Furnham et al. (2009) monetary
compensation and non-monetary payment linked with job satisfaction. Study from
Nigeria also found positive relation between compensation and job satisfaction
(Adeoye & Fields, 2014). Those findings supported by the result from study
based on various cultural background such as United States, Vietnam, and
Malaysia (Tassema et al., 2013). Compensation that can meet employee needs
can lift morale and increase job satisfaction. When individual felt rewarded they
will repeat their action because of stimulus from past experience. They do it
willingly without outside pressure. Such condition made the individual happy in
doing their part because they know they will get reward. So they keep doing it.
One thing that should be noted is that organization must carefully identify which
compensation method they can apply. Similar and repetitive reward can
decrease the reward value, which in the end does not help to build job
satisfaction.
36
Further, the study emphasized that an employee satisfaction must always
be considered given the importance of job satisfaction associated with positive
outcomes
(performance,
turnover,
organizational
commitment,
and
organizational citizenship behavior). We have found that employees consider
compensation satisfaction as important factors that enhance their job
satisfaction. That is why it is recommended that employers offer attractive
compensation packages (salary, benefit, and others) to their employees. The
third hypothesis also supported, that employee stress level will have impact on
the perception toward job satisfaction. Although only present a small value,
organization need to pay attention to what can increase employee stress level.
Finally, since compensation and work stress did not have relation, accordingly
the hypthesis H4 was rejected. Work stress did not mediate the relation between
compensation and job satisfaction. From the results it is also recommended that
organizations should introduce new compensation system for employee with
higher education level and longer tenure. It seems they perceive their
compensation was not fit with their background.
Idris, Adi, Soetjipto, Supriyanto (2020) Compensation is everything that
employees receive
as compensation for their work (Handoko, 2006).
Compensation is also considered as any form of compensation given by the
company to its employees for the sacrifice of the employee concerned (Soehardi,
2003). Compensation also includes all forms of tangible services, benefits
received by employees as part of a work relationship, and financial returns
(Simamora, 2006). Employee sacrifice can be in the form of work, performance
37
services, costs, or the effort spent to achieve certain goals set by the company.
The sacrifice of these employees can be in the form of work, performance
services, costs, or the effort spent to achieve certain goals set by the company.
Meanwhile, Simamora (2006) argues that compensation is also all forms of
financial returns, tangible services, and benefits received by employees as a
portion of an employment relationship. In awarding compensation, what should
be noted is that compensation must be appropriate, fair, acceptable, satisfying,
motivating for work, rewarding, and based on needs. Giving compensation will
provide benefits to both parties, both to the company and to the employees
(Sopiah, 2013). This is due to job satisfaction can affect happiness, morale, and
employee motivation in increasing productivity (Mabaso & Dlamini, 2017; Zhang,
Cai, Jia, & Li, 2018)
Further, the study revealed empirical evidence that proves the relationship
of compensation, satisfaction, and performance is proven by several previous
studies. Compensation positively affect employee performance (Anderson et al.,
2018; Buachoom, 2017; Salisu et al., 2015). Industrial employees in Ethiopia are
satisfied with the compensation payments they receive so as to improve the
employees performance (Addis et al., 2018). An increase in compensation give a
positive impact on employee satisfaction which has an effect on increasing
employee performance (Chong & Leung, 2018; Jiang & Zhang, 2018; Martinson
& De Leon, 2018). The essential of the Islamic work ethic applied in
organizations provides intrinsic motivation and employee work attitudes such as
organizational commitment and satisfaction, thereby it can increase employee
38
performance in the organization (Kataria et al., 2019). The findings of this study
are supported by research in Kenya that teachers feel very unhapppy with all
aspects of financial and non-financial compensation received. However, the
basic salary, benefits and work environment greatly affect teacher job satisfaction
(Muguongo et al., 2015). Satisfaction of sales results also does not impact on
employee performance in insurance companies (El Samen & Akroush, 2018). In
addition, the financial benefits obtained as a company compensation lead to high
employee satisfaction and high performance at other service companies such as
hotels (Che Ahmat et al., 2019; Patiar & Wang, 2020).
Meanwhile, study Vizano, et. Al (2020) viewed to increase productivity and
motivate employees, companies need to provide compensation to employees, to
encourage high achieving employees, to maintain productive and quality
employees in order to remain loyal to the organization / company. According to
Notoadmojo in Edy Sutrisno (2009: 188) there are several objectives of
compensation that need to be considered, namely: 1. Respect for work
performance 2. Providing justice 3. Keep employees in business. 4. Achievement
of quality workers 5. Cost search 6. Compliance law Compensation for workers is
a duty for businesses to be complied with in a timely, equitable and workresulting way. Compensation is whatever workers get for jobs. An organisation is
provided with a different compensation scheme, which is suited to the vision,
mission and goals. The reward is a financial benefit, according to Simamora
(1997). (fundamental fee, success fee, incentive payment, deferral, security
programme, payment outside hours, facilities) and nonfinancial (working and
39
business) compensation. The pay of the corporation is one of the significant
factors affecting an organisation's choice of work. A good cooperative partnership
to advance business success would create a suitable reward of workers
expectations and company capacity. Moreover, compensation based on
employers' desires for their workers will raise employees' moral standards from
time to time and thereby increase employee work outcomes. The key factor for
creating work fulfilment is happiness regarding the amount of pay. Compensation
satisfaction also plays a part in influencing the attitude of an employee at work.
Simamora (1997) says the compensation has an influence on satisfaction and
efficiency inasmuch as feedback, which can make an improvement of employees'
behaviour, can be given compensation in various ways, including wages,
allowances and bonuses. Wage is the remuneration of workers as a result of
their status as an employee who contributes to the achievement of corporate and
organisational goals (Kadarisman, 2012).
Moreover, the study highlighted that the company's wage level is very
critical, given that it impacts the organisation's capacity to recruit and preserve
skilled personnel and its competitive position on the commodity market. Three
objectives can be accomplished through a healthy payroll strategy, namely: to
attract a sufficient supply of jobs, to maintain current workers at a standard of
salary and to prevent expensive employee turnover (Kadarisman 2012). The
compensation shall be all revenues in the form of currency, products earned by
employees, direct or indirect, to pay for services rendered to their companies
(Purwanto (2019). Based on the statistical estimates found in Table 6 above, the
40
compensation variable has a major and negative effect on the turn-over variable.
Less than 0.05. In other words, the theory is accepted. This finding is in
accordance with, and in accordance with, previous research findings (Asbari,
2019; Basuki, et al., 2020; Goestjahjanti et al., 2020) which state that
compensation affects the turnover, implying that compensation would reduce
turnover. Additionally, the study added that the salary variable affects the
variable of job satisfaction positively and significantly. The finding is consistently
with the findings of previous researches, which suggest that compensation has a
substantial positive impact on job satisfaction (Asbari, 2019; Basuki et al., 2020;
Goestjahjanti, etc.), thereby increasing job satisfaction. Effect of Organization
Commitment on Work Satisfaction Based on the statistical calculations
summarized in Table 6 above, it is concluded that the Organizing Dedication
impacts the employee satisfaction variable positively and substantially.
Job security
Security is one of the second fundamental needs of man as postulated by
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Langbert (2002) asserted that security needs are
essential needs; for physical safety and the desire to be free from the fear of
deprivation of the physiological needs. It is largely observed that once an
employee on the job passes the probationary period, the need for job security
quickly appears to recede its importance. As this is achieved, the individual
becomes relaxed and complacent in a job situation. Lankford (2002) opined that
job security is both intrinsic and extrinsic values. It is a paramount consideration
41
of most workers in deciding how long they intend to stay on a job. Lankford
(2005) further emphasized that job security is indispensable in any work
organization. This is because it guarantees staff members’ retention in the
system and its absence threatens stability and spells doom for the organisation.
The finding of the study revealed that job security significantly relates with
teachers retention in private secondary schools. The positive correlation
indicated that the more teachers’ employment is secured, the higher the
teachers’ retention in private secondary schools in Akwa Ibom State. The
explanation for this study is that the job security is the assurance an employee
has about the continuity of his gainful employment for the work life. When there is
certainty in the stability of teacher’s job, the teacher becomes happier.
Hence the chances of retaining the job become very high, this leads to job
satisfaction. However, when the teachers’ job is threatened, the chances of
retaining the job become very low. The absence of job security can result in
disenchantment with a job. Further, this finding agrees with earlier findings
of Lankford (2002) that job security is both intrinsic and extrinsic factor which
most workers consider in terms of how long they intend to stay on a job. Lankford
(2005) maintained that the absence of job security is equally responsible for high
turnover rate of teachers, this also agrees with the finding of this study. The
finding is also in line with Candle (2010) study which revealed that employers
related factors such as teachers’ job security, salary and working condition had a
significant effect on teachers’ turnover (Umosen & Oleforo, 2019).
42
According to scholars, job insecurity is an employee's perception that his
or her job is uncertain and may come to an end sooner than expected. From
what has been theorized and inferred, it is understandable that job insecurity is
highly threatening to employees given the prospect of losing the positive
material, social, and psychological benefits associated with employment (De
Witte, 1999). The notion that job insecurity may produce negative effects among
individuals is well established. Research in job insecurity across firms, industries,
and countries has provided consistent evidence that job insecurity is associated
with negative employee attitudes, behaviors, and health. This logical connection
is not surprising considering that it goes back to an earlier proposition of job
insecurity theory (Greenhalgh,1983, p. 433). This theory predicts that employee
behavior and attitude will decline as job insecurity increases. Specifically,
employees will be less productive, resist change, and leave. Employees who
stay infer, on the basis of on-going organizational decline, that their own jobs are
less secure (Yahchouchi and Bouldoukian, 2014).
Further, study of Paul, Kasivu and Mulwa (2022)
found that teachers‟
job security practices and teacher retention have a strong influence on
teacher retention in public primary schools in Machakos County. This was
based on the study objectives. Teachers‟ job protection can be achieved
in the learning institutions through induction and mentorship of the newly
employed teachers and even the experienced ones. Job security issues would
involve
areas
such
as financial
protection,
social-economic
protection,
institutional performance mentorship, health and professional ethics protection
43
among other related professional areas. Also, results of the study of Ching
(2022) showed that in terms of job security, the respondents rated all
indicators
satisfied. In terms of work environment, job responsibilities,
community linkages and job security , they rated the indicators much
satisfied. In terms of challenges in the lack of teaching strategies, personal
and attitude self- learning and resourcefulness seeking help and openness
and acceptance, they rated all of them often encountered.
Furthermore, study of Alrashadan (2020) sought that job security level
among private school teachers was high. It was found that job performance level
was moderate. The result of the study indicated a positive, but insignificant,
correlation between job security and job performance. In light of the results, the
study recommended the need for developing some performance appraisal
measures that are based on clear indicators able to reflect the true job
performance level among private schools teachers. Similarly, study of
Yahchouchi
and
Bouldoukian
(2014)
revealed
that
giving
managerial
responsibilities to academic human resources does not influence negatively the
quality of teaching and learning as perceived by students on the opposite side it
suggest a positive impact as observed by senior peers. This will also mean that
additional compensation may influence academic human resources motivation
and the quality of job performance. Additionally, it can therefore be encouraged
to take advantage of empowering academic human resources opposing to some
traditional thoughts that faculty members should be only dedicated to teaching
and research. The results also show that job security influences positively the
44
quality of job performance (teaching and learning) as perceived by students.
Educational institutions are recommended to promote job security for their faculty
to promote more organizational commitment to teaching and learning. Faculty
empowerment combined with job security may have positive impact on job
performance.
In contrast, study of Umosen and Oleforo (2019) found that job insecurity
can be seen as one of the socio-psychological problems which are predominant
in the developing countries such as Nigeria. It is characterized by poor wages,
loss of pay, issue of downsizing, lack of accommodation, lack of consideration for
promotion, possibility of dismissal and application of dragonian rules. Job
insecurity tends to result in a sense of worthlessness and bleak future for an
individual worker or teacher in such a system. The absence of job security is
responsible for the high turnover rate of teacher. Research findings abound
which indicate that when teachers are dissatisfied with their jobs as a result of
lack of job security they respond to the situation by seeking other jobs and
leaving teaching profession. Likely, several studies were found similar results like
Blazer (2006) study indicated that 20% of new teachers in Miami-Dade county
public school in Florida, United States of America leave the teaching profession
after three years and close to 30% left after five years due to perceived job
insecurity. In addition, Coulter and Abney (2009) reported that the trend in
Canada indicates that teachers are leaving the profession and at higher rate than
any other job. In parallel, study of Kamara (2002) asserted that a massive
number of teachers exit the teaching profession due to many reasons including
45
lack of adequate salaries, lack of job security, houses and promotion
opportunities.
Moreover, study of Mukumbira (2001) reported that Zimbabwe lost about
2000 newly qualified teachers who left for greener pastures in year 2000
because of perceived lack of job security. Chaika (2002) advocated that lack of
teachers’ mobility, lack of job security, inadequate induction programme and poor
working conditions as sources of teacher turnover. The same with the study of
Candle (2010) carried out a study on teacher turnover in private secondary
schools in Wakiso District in Kampala, Uganda. The study revealed employers
related factors such as teachers’ low salary, lack of job security and poor working
conditions as having positive significant effect on teachers turnover. However,
studies reviewed revealed that most works were conducted outside Nigeria.
Other studies also revealed that many other works were conducted in firms and
public schools outside Nigeria. This is the existing gap in the literature. Hence,
the researcher is poised to determine whether there is existing relationship
between personnel job security and teachers’ retention in private secondary
schools in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.
Interrelationship
Anyone who has spent time working knows how much of a difference
relationship with colleagues can make. Oftentimes, our collegial relationships
depend how well we get along and work together with our coworkers—can make
or break our enjoyment of a job, in school settings as much as anywhere else.
46
Several scenarios of what positive relationships among school faculty and staff
might look like. Likely, teachers who report positive connections with their
colleagues say that their coworkers are friendly and care about them. Another,
they say that their colleagues respect and trust each other. Also, they see their
coworkers as accepting and encouraging, as well as collaborative and supportive
of each other’s success. Probably, they feel that they can communicate openly
with colleagues, and can go to them for help if needed (Greater Good Science
Center, 2019).
Study of Barile, 2020 discussed how new teachers can be good
colleagues to their fellow teachers. As new teachers try to earn their colleagues'
respect, they worry about stepping on the toes of veteran teachers. They need
guidance on how to build strong, lasting relationships. Teacher relationships with
colleagues are incredibly important because they contribute to a more positive
school climate. The following are the traits to help them develop meaningful,
respectful, and helpful relationships. First, be trustworthy showing your
colleagues that they can trust you is a fundamental step in building strong
relationships with them. Second, listen, if you're a new teacher, it's absolutely
imperative to listen to the vets around you. We get it: You're full of enthusiasm,
and you're eager to contribute to meetings. But be careful—you don't want to
come across as a know-it-all when you're a novice. Veteran teachers and staff
will help you acclimate to the culture of your building. They'll help you navigate
the ups and downs of teaching. Observe how veterans speak in meetings, during
professional learning group time, and with other colleagues. You'll learn valuable
47
information. Third is asking questions. Asking questions is an easy and effective
way to build relationships with your colleagues. If you don't understand
something or you need help, don't be afraid to ask questions. Fourth, support
your colleagues, supporting your colleagues' work shows them that you care
about their interests and are willing to show up when they need you. Fifth, offer
your help, if you have a special skill, let your colleagues know and offer your
help. Reverse mentoring is powerful. Sixth is respect boundaries. Respecting
your fellow teachers' boundaries is critical to building bridges—and keeping the
workplace civil. Sixth, be real, when you interact with a colleague, be yourself,
and be honest. Look to create genuine relationships with your fellow teachers,
not transactional ones. This will show your colleagues that you're invested in the
relationship. Seventh, celebrate, get to know your colleagues better by creating
memories with them. Eight, branch out, forming relationships with teacher
colleagues can help you feel more fulfilled in your career, but it's also perfectly
acceptable to develop relationships with your principal or other administrator, too.
Study of (Asbari, 2019; Fayzhall, et al., 2020; Goestjahjanti, et al., 2020),
revealed that the interrelationship of organizations has a positive and important
impact on satisfaction at work so that the commitment of organizations is
boosted. Job enjoyment was concluded that the job satisfaction is evident.
Meanwhile, employee with harmonious relationship among co-workers performed
higher than expected. According to Mangkunegara (2009) performance is the
product of quality and quantity of work accomplished by an employee in finishing
their tasks and related to their responsibilities to fulfill their duties on time.
48
Performance is defined as the product reached by a person in finishing the tasks
assigned based on their experience, skill, and sincerity. Performance is also a
combination of three essential factors including the interest and ability of a
worker, the ability and acceptance of the delegation's task explanation, and the
role and level of worker motivation. The higher the three factors, the greater the
person's performance (Hasibuan, 2002).
Previous research has shown a positive effect of interrelationships in job
satisfaction and employee performance (Amiroso & Mulyanto, 2015; Chong &
Leung, 2018; Dhamija et al., 2019; Jiang & Zhang, 2018; Kataria et al., 2019;
Martinson & De Leon, 2018). To improve overall performance, managers target
and focus on the welfare of their employees to encourage employees to work
better and work together for a better. This is an effort to love the workers
(Shahzad, Farrukh, Kanwal, & Sakib, 2018). Happy relationship among workers
is one important aspect in the practice of organizational behavior and human
resource management. This is because it provides happiness, safe, loving, care,
morale, and employee motivation in increasing productivity (Mabaso & Dlamini,
2017; Zhang et al., 2018).
Study of Vizano (2020) suggested a maintaining, continuing and improving
personnel management system so that employees feel comfortable while doing
their work, as well as improving facilities that support employee performance by
providing adequate transportation means. Also, the need for employees to
support daily reports, weekly reports, and monthly reports such as personal
computers, because so far employees still use their own laptops and according
49
to interviews with several employees, this is quite burdensome for employees.
These suggestions will increase employer to employees relationship in teaching
followed by the awakening of employee enthusiasm with their peers to continue
to improve their performance and also cohesiveness between employees so that
they feel satisfaction with their work and can increase employee performance.
Interrelationship that develops well for employees is affective commitment. This
is a good thing because the reason employees stay in the work is because
emotionally, they feel close to the department. In addition, they also identify
themselves as part of the company.
Organization Culture
Organizational culture is a set of values, principles, traditions, and ways of
working shared by members of the organization, influencing the behavior and
actions of the organization members, and distinguishes the organization from
other organizations (Robbins and Coulter, 2016). The definition implies three
things. First, culture is a perception, but employees accept and understand it
through what they experience. Second, organizational culture is descriptive,
which is about how members receive and interpret the culture, regardless of
whether they like it or not. Finally, although individuals in organizations have
different backgrounds and work at various organizational levels, they tend to
interpret and express corporate culture in the same way. In other words, there
are aspects of shared acceptance (Robbins and Coulter, 2016). Greenberg and
Baron, 2010) define organizational culture as a cognitive framework that includes
50
attitudes, values, norms, and shared expectations shared by members of the
organization. Denison and Misra (2007) formulated organizational culture
indicators as follows: (1) Mission, namely, the concept of corporate planning
accompanied by actions according to plan to achieve organizational goals. (2)
Consistency, namely, the determination to continue to carry out tasks with
various obstacles. (3) Adaptability, namely, the employees' ability to adjust and
react over leadership and workplace change (4) Involvement, involves
employees at all levels of the organization in decision making and problemsolving (Murtiningsih, 2019).
Likewise, organizational culture is the set of values, beliefs, attitudes,
systems, and rules that outline and influence employee behavior within an
organization. The culture reflects how employees, customers, vendors, and
stakeholders experience the organization and its brand. Don’t confuse culture
with organizational goals or a mission statement, although both can help define
it. Culture is created through consistent and authentic behaviors, not press
releases or policy documents. The importance of culture to your company is to
improve recruitment efforts, improve employee retention, improve brand
identity and improve engagement. Organizational culture affects all aspects of
your business, from punctuality and tone to contract terms and employee
benefits. When workplace culture aligns with your employees, they’re more likely
to feel more comfortable, supported, and valued. Companies that prioritize
culture can also weather difficult times and changes in the business environment
and come out stronger. Culture is a key advantage when it comes to attracting
51
talent and
outperforming
the
competition. Seventy-seven
percent
of
workers consider a company’s culture before applying, and almost half of
employees would leave their current job for a lower-paying opportunity at an
organization with a better culture. The culture of an organization is also one of
the top indicators of employee satisfaction and one of the main reasons that
almost thirds (65%) of employees stay in their job (Wong & Wong 2023).
Organizational culture also plays a vital role in determining the success of
an organization. An influential culture, a culture that instills core values in a
secure and widely accepted way among employees, has a more significant
influence on employee behavior than a weak culture. The more influential the
organizational culture, the more profound its impact the way managers carry out
management functions starting from planning, organizing, leadership, and
controlling. Thus organizations need to have an influential organizational culture
in which their employees will provide higher loyalty to the organization than
employees in organizations with weak cultures (Robbins & Coulter, 2016;
Work environment is somewhat that is in the workers setting and that
impact their finishing tasks assigned (Nitisemito, 2001). The work environment is
the entire tool kit, the close environment in which methods, works, and
arrangements of a person both as individuals or as a group (Sedarmayanti,
2011). The work environment is also defined by noise, tools, materials, space,
physical layout, and co-worker relationships as well as the quality of all of those
that have essential impacts on the high quality of work (Raziq & Maulabakhsh,
2015). Safe, comfortable and attractive working conditions are created if the
52
environment around the workplace is healthy (Raziq & Maulabakhsh, 2015).
Healthy work environment includes regulation of noise, workplace lighting,
humidity and air temperature, service needs of employees, use of color,
maintenance of environmental cleanliness and the provision of various facilities
needed by employees, such as toilets, changing rooms, and places of worship
(Amiroso & Mulyanto, 2015).
Some empirical evidence conducted by previous researchers proves that
the effect of work environment, job satisfaction, and employee performance was
significant. Educational institutions, banking and the telecommunications industry
in Pakistan prove a significant effect of the work environment to employee job
satisfaction. Managers recognize the standing of a respectable work environment
to exploit the level of job satisfaction (Raziq & Maulabakhsh, 2015). Jain and
Kaur (2014), and Muguongo, et al. (2015) found a significant correlation between
work environment and job satisfaction. The banking industry in India proves that
the work environment make employee unhappy resulting in decreased employee
performance (Dhamija et al., 2019). Idris ¹, Khofifatu Rohmah Adi ², Budi Eko
Soetjipto 3, Achmad Sani Supriyanto 4, 2020).
Likewise, Organizational Culture needs to be strengthened to increase
Job Satisfaction and Employee Retention. Compensation directly and positively
affects both Job Satisfaction and Employee Retention. Therefore, companies
must always provide reasonable compensation for their employees. Likewise,
Organizational Culture needs to be strengthened so that employees feel a more
53
pleasant working atmosphere, higher work discipline, and better working
relationships, thereby increasing Job Satisfaction and Employee Retention.
Study of Jukic (2022) revealed that a successful manager will strive to
achieve an open climate because such a manager has personal integrity, high
consideration and thanks to interpersonal skills does not have to emphasize
productitvity, but completely controls the organization. Also, such a form leads to
satisfied and motivated employess, and most importantly, a satisfied employee is
created. School is characterized by exceptional susceptibility to organizational
values, norms, stereotypes, traditions, standards, ceremonies and rituals and this
should not be taken as something bad.
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
In my desire to develop an in-depth understanding of the meaning of
teaching as a non-education graduate and its effectiveness in teaching and
learning environments, I anchored this study on Bourdieu’s (1979) Social Field
Theory coined as Habitus. According to his theory, being-in-the-world amounts to
a nonthematic circumspective absorption in everyday activity. The world is
comprehensible, immediately endowed with meaning because we have been
exposed to its regularities from the beginning. We therefore acquire dispositions
or systems of dispositions: habitus (Bourdieu, 1990, 1997; Bourdieu & Wacquant,
1992). Habitus generates, without reflection are the patterned ways we interact
with the world, that is, our practices that embody both actions and perceptions.
There exists a mutually constitutive and therefore reflexive relationship between
the structures of the world and the structure of habitus. The key concepts of
54
Bourdieu’s theory confirm the complexities of teacher development and teacher
change by focusing on the dynamic relationships between structure and agency
within a social practice, pointing to the promise and possibility of social change
through critical reflexivity. Bourdieu posits a situated critical reflexivity, that is, a
reflexivity which is not separated from the everyday but is intrinsically linked to
the (unconscious) categories of habit which shape action (Adkins, 2004). The
concepts of field and habitus are central to understanding social practice since
the two concepts are produced and reproduced in relation to each other through
social practice. Drawing on the theoretical constructs of Bourdieu’s social field
theory, I presented several pervasive discourses, or dispositions, as narrated by
the non-education teachers. These discourses highlighted non-education
teachers’ negotiations of conflicting habitus-field fits during their teacher
education field experience. Understanding the dispositions and actions (habitus)
within social practice fields, along with Bourdieu’s theoretical constructs, provides
key insights for their situation.
55
Input
Process
Output
Performance of Noneducation Graduate
Teacher
● Dealing with
insecurities and
anxieties
● Lack of Content
Mastery
● Lack of Teaching
Strategies and
Techniques
● Being able to shape
up and progress
● Coping Mechanism

Drafting of Survey,
Validation &
Proposed high
Reliability
performance of non-

Data Gathering
education graduate

Statistical Analysis
Job Satisfaction
● Job security
● Compensation
● Interrelationship
● Organization
Culture
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
teachers program
56
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this mixed method study was to determine the extent of
performance of non-education graduate teachers in terms of dealing with
insecurities and anxieties, lack of content mastery, lack of teaching strategies
and techniques, being able to shape up and progress, coping mechanism and
job satisfaction in terms of job security, compensation, interrelationship and
organization culture; as well as to know the relationship of the variables
mentioned. Additionally, the study dug deeper to determine what quantitative
results need further explanation to determine what school program will be
suggested to develop high performance of non-education graduate teachers
program to boost job satisfaction of teachers of Binugao District, Davao City
Division for the past three school years.
Statement of the Problem
This study aimed to determine the level of performance of non-education
graduate teachers of Binugao District.
Specifically, the study sought to answer the following questions:
1. What is the level of performance of non-education graduate teachers in terms
of:
1.1 Dealing with insecurities and anxieties
1.2 Lack of content mastery
1.3 Lack of teaching strategies and techniques
57
1.4 Being able to shape up progress
1.5 Coping mechanism
2. What is the level of job satisfaction in terms of?
2.1 Job security
2.2 Compensation
2.3 Interrelationship
2.4 Organization culture
3. Is there a significant relationship between the performance of non-education
graduate teachers and job satisfaction (Quantitative)?
4. What school program should be created to develop high performance of noneducation graduate teachers (Qualitative) to boost job satisfaction?
Hypotheses
The null hypotheses of this study were formulated and tested at 0.05
alpha level of significance:
HO1. There was no significant relationship between the performance of
non-education graduate teachers and job satisfaction.
The research findings of the study have made a valuable contribution to
the following beneficiaries included:
58
The Department of Education. This could have important implications for
policy. This can be basis for policy solutions to the dilemma such as how to
ensure
sufficient
supply
without
lowering
the
bar,
which
would
simultaneously upgrade the quality and attractiveness of the job and many other
educational policies. This study could provide additional information on the
effects of employing non-education teachers to teach among elementary
learners. Moreover, core curricula for educators too often fall short of the depth
and detail needed to successfully serve learner populations. Hence, the study
could be a benchmark for further enhancement of the curriculum.
School Administrators. The findings of the study will provide the school
administrators a better understanding as to assist, support and give technical
assistance to non-education graduate teachers, thus this will be the basis for
policy academic planners of the school in redirecting their school plan giving
more emphasis on uplifting the performance non-education graduate teachers.
Teachers. The findings of the study would hear their experiences and
sentiments in relation to their profession. This would give them a chance to voice
out the daily issues they face as well as the difficulties they encounter in their
teaching career. The knowledge gained from this study would offer a clear
understanding of why teachers experience disparities between expectations of
teaching and realities of the classroom, and how such disparities affect their
performance and the quality of education they serve to the students.
59
Learners. The findings of the study will help learners to actively participate
to the discussions and activities of their teacher even if there is not an education
graduate.
Future Researchers. This finding of the study provide baseline data who
will conduct the same field of study but could focus on different variables as
presumably , there will other issues be worthy of further research.
The following operational definitions are provided to ensure that all terms
used in this study are to be understood:
Non-education graduates’ teachers. Non-education graduate teachers
refer to a person who is a graduate of a non-education degree, has been earning
education units, has passed the licensure examination, and is currently employed
as a teacher in an educational institution.
Dealing with insecurities and anxieties. Insecurity is a feeling of
inadequacy (not being good enough) and uncertainty. It produces anxiety about
your goals, relationships, and ability to handle certain situations. Anxiety
describes an emotion characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts, and
physical changes like increased blood pressure. Everybody deals with insecurity
and anxiety from time to time. It can appear in all areas of life and come from a
variety of causes. It might stem from a traumatic event, patterns of previous
experience, social conditioning (learning rules by observing others), or local
environments such as school, work, or home.
60
Lack of content mastery. A teacher who is incompetent in general
pedagogical knowledge includes the principles and strategies of classroom
management and organization that are cross-curricular and pedagogical content
knowledge comprises the knowledge which integrates the content knowledge of
a specific subject and the pedagogical knowledge for teaching that particular
subject.
Lack of teachings strategies and techniques. Teaching strategies refer to
the methods, techniques, procedures and processes that a teacher uses during
instruction. It isgenerally recognised that teaching strategies are multidimensional
and their effectiveness depends on the context in which they are applied.
Being able to shape up and progress. To shape up is to improve or
develop. Shaping-in to a situation, if in other words is, as good as adapting to the
situation, tune the approach and make necessary amends to align with the
requirement; Shape-up, is the assertion of the readiness to progress to the next
level. However, shaping-up to next level in the desired manner isn't possible,
without shaping-in to succeed from the previous situation or level. To grow and
develop it’s obvious that one need to challenge oneself, get uncomfortable, and
try to do something different. Remember all progress takes place outside the
comfort zone. Thriving individuals are growing, energized, developing rather than
stagnating or feeling depleted. Shaping-up is all about the passion, energy
through the excitement of work and constant learning.
61
Coping mechanism. Coping mechanisms are the strategies people often
use in the face of stress and/or trauma to help manage painful or difficult
emotions. Coping mechanisms can help people adjust to stressful events
while helping them maintain their emotional well-being.
Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is defined as the level of contentment
employees feel with their job. This goes beyond their daily duties to cover
satisfaction with team members/managers, satisfaction with organizational
policies, and the impact of their job on employees’ personal lives
Job security. Job security is a sense of knowing that your job is safe from
being cut. It's an assurance that you will be able to work in your current
employment for the foreseeable future. Job security comes with a feeling of
protection against things like layoffs, economic downfalls, and other factors that
could impact employment.
Compensation. Compensation is the remuneration awarded to an
employee in exchange for their services or individual contributions to your
business. The contributions can be their time, knowledge, skills, abilities, and
commitment to your company or a project. In simpler words, compensation is the
money received by an employee from an employer as a salary or wages
Interrelationship. Interrelationship is a close relationship between two or
more things or people. mutual or reciprocal relation or relatedness. The way in
which each of two or more things is related to the other or others.
62
Organizational culture. Organizational culture is generally understood
as all of a company's beliefs, values and attitudes, and how these influence the
behaviour of its employees. Culture affects how people experience an
organization—that is, what it's like for a customer to buy from a company or a
supplier to work with it.
63
CHAPTER 2
Method
This section discussed the study’s techniques, such as the research
design, research respondents, research instrument, data gathering procedure,
ethical considerations, data analysis and sequence, emphasis and procedures.
Research Design
This research study employed explanatory sequential mixed method
design. This study combined quantitative and qualitative approaches to gain a
comprehensive understanding on the performance of non-education graduate
teachers and job satisfaction. This study used survey or questionnaire to gather
quantitative data and interviews to gather qualitative insights. This study made
use of two distinct phases: quantitative followed by qualitative (Creswell et al.
2003). In this design, a researcher first collects and analyses the quantitative
(numeric) data. The qualitative (text) data are collected and analyzed second in
the sequence and help explain, or elaborate on, the quantitative results obtained
in the first phase. The second builds to follow the results on the first, quantitative
phase, and the two phases are connected in the intermediate stage in the study
for the interpretation. The rationale for this approach is that the quantitative data
and their subsequent analysis provide a general understanding of the research
problem. The qualitative data and their analysis refine and explain those
statistical results by exploring participants’ views in more depth (Rossman and
64
Wilson 1985; Tashakkori and Teddie 1998; Creswell 2003). In the first
quantitative phase of the study, the quantitative research questions focused on
non-education graduate teachers served as predictors in influencing their job
satisfaction. Moreover, since the views and feelings of these students were
crucial in this analysis, the researcher used a qualitative research design to
document the experiences of the teachers with regards to the variables of the
study.
Research Respondents/Participants
The purpose of this mixed-methods sequential explanatory study was to
identify the level of the non-education graduate teachers and job satisfaction by
obtaining quantitative results from a survey of 12 non-education graduate
teachers and then following up with five (5) purposefully selected on-education
graduate teachers to explore those results in more depth through an in-depth
interview. For this study, certain inclusion criteria were implemented in
determining the teacher respondents of the study. The primary consideration of
this study was to choose teacher respondents who could provide information to
achieve the purpose of this study. Hence, only those teachers who were officially
hired in Binugao District. Moreover, the study was delimited only to the nature of
the problem based on the research questions and thus it did not consider
performance of the teacher.
65
Research Instrument
In order to gather the quantitative data, on adapted survey questionnaire
and School Form 2 were used. The tools were subjected to content validity by
panel of experts and pilot tested to obtain its reliability. The first part of the
instrument was the non-education graduate teachers which was adapted from
the study of Patalinghug (2018). The questionnaire is composed of 5-item
statements for each indicator of non-education graduate teachers. The adapted
questionnaire has a Cronbach alpha value of .865 which means that it has a
good reliability.
Range of
Means
Descriptive
Equivalent
4.20 – 5.00
Very High
Performance of non-education graduate teachers
is always evident.
3.40 – 4.19
High
Performance of non-education graduate teachers
is oftentimes evident.
2.60 – 3.39
Moderate
Performance of non-education graduate teachers
is sometimes evident.
1.80 – 2.59
Low
Performance of non-education graduate teachers
is seldom evident.
1.00 – 1.79
Very Low
Performance of non-education graduate teachers
is never evident.
Interpretation
Indicated above is the numeric and descriptive interpretation of the extent
of performance of non-education graduate teachers.
66
The second adopted questionnaire was developed by Lopes and
Oliveira (2020) was used to measure the job satisfaction. The adapted
questionnaire has a Cronbach alpha value of .967 which means that it has a
good reliability.
Indicated below is the numeric and descriptive interpretation of the extent
job satisfaction.
Range of
Means
Descriptive
Equivalent
4.20 – 5.00
Very High
3.40 – 4.19
High
Job satisfaction is oftentimes evident.
2.60 – 3.39
Moderate
Job satisfaction is sometimes evident.
1.80 – 2.59
Low
Job satisfaction is seldom evident.
1.00 – 1.79
Very Low
Job satisfaction is never evident.
Interpretation
Job satisfaction is always evident.
Additionally, a team of experts validated the content of these
questionnaires. These experts come from various institutions. Based on criteria,
the experts evaluated the questionnaire. The researcher considered the advice
and comments of the experts. The instrument underwent pilot testing prior to its
final administration.
Meanwhile, in the qualitative phase, a semi-structured in-depth interview
was used. The researcher interviewed each participant using a validated
interview guide in this study. With the participants’ permission, the interviewer
jotted down notes. According to Guion (2002) An in-depth semi-structured
67
interview is described as a positive discussion of a specific topics taking to
individuals with a similar background and common interest.
Data Gathering Procedures
On the quantitative phase, necessary steps were undertaken in the
conduct of the study. These steps were indicated below to gather the quantitative
data needed:
1.
Asking Permission to Conduct a Study. The researcher submitted a
survey request to the Dean of the Graduate School of Rizal Memorial Colleges
and to the Office of Division Superintendent asking permission to conduct a
study. After the approval, the approved letter was presented to the principals of
the respondent-schools where the teachers are teaching.
2.
Content Validation and Pilot Testing. Prior to the administration of
the questionnaire, the questionnaires were subjected to content validation by
panel of experts. They were given a validation sheet to assess the items which
were based on certain criteria. This was conducted via face-to-face setup. The
experts had affixed their signature in the form and indicated their responses and
comments.
After the conduct of validation test, pilot testing was administered to
selected teachers who were not covered in the study. A total of 30 teachers were
subjected to pilot testing. These teachers were not part of the official
respondents. The purpose of pilot testing was to assess the reliability of the
68
instrument. The pilot testing was conducted face-to-face. Each questionnaire
registered good and excellent reliability.
3.
Administration and Distribution of the Questionnaire. Survey
questionnaires were administered and distributed via face-to-face set up to the
respondents of the study. Enough time was given to them to answer the survey
form. Another way of accomplishing the survey was to personally hand the
questionnaire or place it in a dropbox where the identified respondents picked the
form and return it after they answer to the same dropbox.
4.
Retrieval of the Questionnaire. Questionnaires were retrieved after
the respondents completely answered the items. These responses were
personally handed or placed in a drop box.
5.
Analysis and Interpretation. Results were analyzed and interpreted
using statistical treatments. The statistical tools used were Mean and Pearson r.
In the qualitative side of the study, the researcher conducts the interview
with the respondents in a conducive, quit environment. The interview was
initiated individually for about 10-20 minutes. One-on-one in depth interview was
conducted to gather the live experiences of the participants with regards to the
school program that they may suggest to enrich the performance of noneducation graduate teachers to rise job satisfaction. On the conduct of the oneon-one in-depth interview, the researcher used the validated interview protocol
and gave follow up questions to ensure saturation of answers. In addition, the
researcher discussed thoroughly the ethical considerations to the participants.
Also, the participants’ perspective on the phenomenon of interest was unfolded
69
according to how he/she viewed it and not as the researcher viewed it. The
interview involved a personal interaction where cooperation was essential
(Creswell, 2007). During the in-depth interview, the participants were informed
first that the process is going to be recorded. The responses were recorded with
the permission of the participants and they were saved in a flash drive.
Ethical Considerations
The researcher observed the ethical principles set forth by RMC’s
Research Ethics. These principles were social value, informed consent, risk,
benefits and safety, privacy and confidentiality of information, justice,
transparency, qualification of researcher, adequacy of facilities, and community
involvement.
Social Value. The goal of this study is to determine the influence of
students’ anxiety in second language learning and absenteeism. Certainly, this
study would be beneficial to several stakeholders. To the School Administrators,
this will provide relevant data to teachers who are teaching in the post pandemic.
The school administrators may send their teachers to professional engagement
activities to acquire valuable skills. To the learners, this will enable them to
engage in programs that will help to motivate themselves in avoiding absences.
Informed consent process. The study questions are clear of technical
words, making them easier to interpret for the respondents. It offers them a clear
picture of their advantages due to undertaking the study. The notion of respect
for the individual who may seek consent how and when it will be done is applied
70
to this study's informed consent approach. The researcher will ask permission
from the respondents through written consent. Approved letter from the Schools
Division Superintendent will be attached. The respondents will be informed on
their duties and responsibilities while participating in the study. However, they
could withdraw anytime if they feel inconvenience.
Risks, Benefits, and Safety. The study will not involve high risks of
situations that the respondents may experience in physical, psychological, or
socio-economic concerns. The researcher believes that this research entails little
risk, with the probability and extent of any damages resulting from involvement in
the study is no more than those they could experience in their daily lives.
However, the researcher has a high risk of getting harmed physically due to
traveling to different locations as the research locale of the study. To lessen the
probability of occurrence, the research will evaluate the risk and decides on the
precautions on health and safety. Meanwhile, the result of the study will benefit
the learners in motivation to go to school every day.
Privacy and Confidentiality of Information. The researcher will ensure that
the respondents' personal information, which is essential for the study, will be
kept private and secured. At all times, the data acquired for this study will be kept
safe. Further, the researcher will adhere to the principles of transparency,
legitimate purpose, and proportionality in the collection, retention, and processing
of personal information (Data Privacy Act of 2012). This move will protect the
identities of the respondents and ensures that the data cannot be traced back to
the respondents. The manner of storage of data will be done in electronic saving.
71
The data will be kept to the researcher's email so that it could be retrieved
anytime when needed for the benefit of the research respondents.
Justice. In this study, the researcher will treat all respondents equal. The
researcher will provide tokens to compensate the time spent by the respondents.
Additionally, this study will ensure that the rights of the respondents are
respected and honoured.
Transparency. In carrying out this study, the researcher will orient the
respondents on their roles and responsibilities. Also, the respondents will be
oriented on the methods utilized in this study. All the necessary documents that
will support the data analysis and will give the readers access to read to gain a
better understanding of the study's results and findings will be included. In the
presentation of findings, the researcher is objective in presenting the real results.
The results will be disseminated in a bigger forum either in conference, forum or
in a LAC session.
Qualification of Researcher. Since the researcher is able to complete the
academic units, thus, he is qualified to pursue this study. Evidence is he passed
the comprehensive examination. Meanwhile, advance statistical tools make the
researcher not comfortable since this requires the knowledge of statistician thus,
he asks the assistance of his adviser and panel members. Additionally, he can
also ask the expertise of his peers for coaching and mentoring purposes only.
Adequacy of Facilities. In this study, the researcher is able to access the
needed facilities and resources since it is available in the area like internet
sources and library. In case the researcher will find difficulty in the analysis of
72
data, he can tap a group of experts that will provide valuable feedbacks and
suggestions not only in conducting the study but also in communicating the
results.
Community Involvement. The success of this study will not only benefit the
researcher but it will also contribute big to the community members. The findings
of the study will be shared to the people in the community on the significance of
the adaptability of teachers and anxiety. In this regard, they will be more aware
that it can contribute to the overall cognitive development of their students or
children. Further, the dissemination of findings will require permission from
authorities so that bigger audience can acquire relevant information on the
findings and recommendations of this study.
Data Analysis
The following statistical tools were used to answer the research questions:
Mean. This was used to assess the extent of performance of noneducation graduate teachers and job satisfaction.
Pearson r. This was used to determine the relationship between
performance of non-education graduate teachers and job satisfaction.
Thematic Content Analysis. According to Anderson (2007), Thematic
Content Analysis (TCA) is a descriptive presentation of qualitative data.
Qualitative data mat take form of interview transcripts collected from research
participants or other identified texts that reflect experientially on the topic of the
73
study. In this study, transcripts gathered from the interview or focus group
discussion will be analysed to produce meaningful themes.
The six steps prescribed by Braun and Clarke (2006) to carry out a
thematic analysis are guidelines and should not be used as prescriptive, linear,
and inflexible rules when analysing data. They should rather be used in relation
to the research question and the available data. The six steps are as follows:
1.
Familiarizing yourself with your data – this step requires the
researcher to be fully immersed and actively engaged in the data by firstly
transcribing the interactions and then reading (and re-reading) the transcripts
and/or listening to the recordings. Initial ideas should be noted down. It is
important that the researcher has a comprehensive understanding of the content
of the interaction and has familiarized him-/herself with all aspects of the data.
2.
Generating initial codes – Once familiar with the data, the researcher
must then start identifying preliminary codes, which are the features of the data
that appear interesting and meaningful. These codes are more numerous and
specific that themes, but provide an indication of the context of the conversation.
3.
Searching for themes – The third step in the process is the start of
the interpretive analysis of the collated codes. Relevant data extracts are sorted
(combined or split) according to overarching themes. The researcher’s thought
process should allude to the relationship between codes, subthemes, and
themes.
4.
Reviewing themes – A deeper review of identified themes follows
where the researcher needs to question whether to combine, refine , separate,
74
or discard initial themes. Data within themes should cohere together
meaningfully, while there should be clear and identifiable distinctions between
themes. This is usually done over two phases, where the themes need to be
checked in relation to the coded extracts (phase 1), and then for the overall data
set (phase 2). A thematic ‘map’ can be generated form this step.
5.
Defining and naming themes
-
this step involves ‘refining and
defining’ themes and potential subthemes within the data. On-going analysis is
required to further enhance the identified themes. The researcher needs to
provide theme names and clear working definitions that capture the essence of
each theme in a concise and punchy manner. At this point, a unified story of the
data needs to emerge from the themes.
6. Producing the report -
Finally, the researcher needs to transform
his/her analysis into an interpretable piece of writing by using vivid and
compelling extracts examples that relate to the themes, research question, and
literature. The report must rely on the results of the analysis in a way that
convinces the reader of the merit and validity of the analysis. It must go beyond
an evidence that addresses the research question.
Sequence, Emphasis and Mixing Procedures
Sequence. Explanatory sequential mixed method design was used in this
study. This means that both the quantitative phase and qualitative phase were
concurrently conducted. For quantitative strand, one survey instrument having
three (3) parts each variable composed of adapted questionnaires to measure
75
the variables in this study taken from previous researchers bearing similar topic
of the study were administered to the 12 non-education graduate teachers of
Binugao District, Division of Davao City. For qualitative strand, a researchermade interview guide was crafted to elicit information form the research
participants during the in-depth interview. The information was then transcribed
and analysed using coding and thematic analysis to determine the emerging
themes based on the responses of the learner participants.
Emphasis. The quantitative data and qualitative were given equal
emphasis in this study. The findings were integrated during the interpretation
phase of the study. The convergent design framework shows two strands with
the data collection and analysis from the quantitative and qualitative strands.
Mixing. The design required a substantial length of time to complete all
data collection given the two separate phases. The researcher typically
connected the two strands (Creswell, 2003). The rationale for this approach was
that the quantitative data and their subsequent analysis provided a general
understanding of the research problem. The quantitative data and their analysis
were used to explain those statistical results by exploring participants’ views in
more depth (Rossman and Wilson 1985; Tashakkori and Teddie 1998; Creswell,
2003).
It is shown in Figure 2, the systematic procedure of the study. It
demonstrated the use of convergent mixed methods design, where quantitative
data and qualitative data were corroborated to determine the performance of
non-education
graduate
teachers
to
rise
job
satisfaction
of
teachers
76
administered to the participants who were selected through purposive sampling.
Then, after giving adequate time, the survey questionnaires were collected by
the researcher, responses of the participants were encoded and qualitative
phase were conducted simultaneously in the selected teachers of Binugao
District Davao City Division. In the quantitative strand, a validated survey
questionnaire was analysed using computer application and the answers of the
participants were numeric data as the output. In addition, in analysing the
quantitative data, appropriate statistical tools used were weighted mean and
Pearson’s r product moment correlation. After treatments, data will be presented
according to the sequence of the research problems.
In qualitative data strand, the researcher purposely selected the
participants based on the quantitative data findings for the in-depth interview.
Schedule of the interview was set at the convenience of the participants
considering that the participants have classes being learners. Every detail of the
responses was taken into consideration but those that were not relevant to the
study were not reflected. In addition, the interview proceedings were recorded
with the consent of the participants. In analysing the qualitative data, discourse
and narrative analysis were used. The results from qualitative strand were
compared with the quantitative data to determine if they corroborated. They
were discussed leading to the interpretation of phenomenon of the study.
77
QUANTITATIVE DATA
COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
● Asking Permission to Conduct a
Study.
● Content Validation and Pilot
Testing.
● Administration and Distribution
of the Questionnaire.
● Retrieval of the Questionnaire.
● Analysis and Interpretation
FOLLOW-UP
WITH
QUALIITATIVE DATA
COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
● Familiarising yourself with your
data
● Generating initial codes
● Searching for themes
● Reviewing themes
● Defining and naming themes
● Producing the report
QUALITATIVE
EXPLANATION ON
QUANTITATIVE
RSULTS
Figure 2. Flow of Procedures
78
Alrashadan, H. S. (2020, December 30). Job Security for Private School
Teachers
at
Irbid
Governorate
and
its
Relationship
to
their
Job
Performance. http://www.jaesjo.com/index.php/jaes/article/view/147
Aloysius Umosen; Ngozika Oleforo (2019). Personnel Job Security and
Teachers’ Retention in Private Secondary Schools in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.
American Journal of Creative Education, 2(1): 13-17.
Ching, M. A. (2022). Job Satisfaction and Performance of Non-Education
Teacher Graduates in the Schools Division of Quezon. Psychology and
Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 3(2), 81-89.
Author(s)
Du Plessis, Anna
Thesis title
Understanding the out-of-field teaching experience, 2013
Abstract
The purpose of this thesis is to unveil the complexities surrounding out-of-field
teaching. Out-of-field teaching entails teachers teaching outside their field of
qualification, this field might be a specific subject or year level. Quality
education is influenced by the availability of various resources to support
effective pedagogies. Hattie (2009) claims that teachers remain the main and
most influential resource in education. Previous research in this field focused on
the occurrence and implications of out-of-field teaching as a “whole” on school
management and professional development but overlooked the lived
experiences of those involved in out-of-field teaching practices. The purpose of
the thesis is to address the need to understand the out-of-field experience. The
research question, how fundamental, for out-of-field teachers in their everyday
concerns and practices, are their lived experiences and the meaning of out-of-
79
field teaching, focuses on what really happens when teachers are assigned to
out-of-field positions. The thesis explores the interrelationships between lived
experiences and out-of-field teaching and what it means for teacher
dispositions, leadership strategies, classroom and behaviour management,
pedagogical content knowledge and the wider school community. The thesis
highlights misconceptions and misunderstandings while new information
emerged to underline gaps within policy and decision-making in relation to outof-field teaching practices. Existing literature hovers around the occurrence of
out-of-field teaching and thoroughly discusses claims that out-of-field teaching
is a global concern (Ee-gyeong, 2011), and widespread with implications for
teacher turnover, attrition, retention (Ingersoll, 2001a, 2003a, 2004). McConney
and Price (2009a, 2009b) claim that between 20% to 24% of teachers in
Western Australia teach in positions outside their field of qualification.
Ingvarson, Beavis, and Kleinhenz (2004) claim that 25% to 30% of teachers in
Victoria, Australia, feel unqualified for the position in which they teach. Norway
appoints student teachers in positions outside their field of training in certain
schools with ethnic minorities because of a shortage of qualified teachers
(Bonesrønning, Falch, & Strøm, 2003). In my endeavour to know more about
the out-of-field teaching practice I completed research about its implications for
school management (Du Plessis, 2005) and professional development (Du
Plessis, 2010) but the need to understand was not sufficiently explained by
these research projects. The fundamental meanings of the lived experiences
were still overlooked. This is the first thesis in this field focusing on the lived
experiences in relation to out-of-field teaching practices through the lenses of
educational directors, school leaders, teachers (specialist and out-of-field) and
parents across two cultures. The thesis develops an in-depth understanding of
the meaning out-of-field teaching has for teachers and their effectiveness in
teaching and learning environments. Supporting the development of in-depth
understanding, the thesis integrates Gadamer’s theory (1975) of “fusion of
horizons” (p. 273) together with Vygotsky’s theory (1978) of the more
knowledgeable other, and a deeper understanding of the meaning out-of-field
teaching has for the learning environment develops. Using hermeneutic
phenomenology as way of inquiry, primary and secondary schools across two
continents, Australia (Queensland and Western Australia) and South Africa,
were approach for close conversations and observations. Gadamer’s theory
about “shared meaning” (Gadamer, 1976) supported the exploration of lived
experiences through the different lenses of the participant sample (i.e.,
principals, teachers [specialist and out-of-field], parents, and educational
leaders). The transnational exploration of 48 participants’ lived experiences was
not to compare but to validate the data and offer an in-depth understanding
(Goodnow, 2006) of what really happens within out-of-field situations in various
environments. Data were triangulated through eleven classroom observations
which included classes with specialist and out-of-field teachers as well as
document analysis (agendas, minutes of subject and staff meetings, reflective
notes in the field diary). I interpreted six key themes, firstly teacher dispositions,
80
emotions perceptions and expectations, secondly leadership concerns, thirdly
classroom management difficulties, fourthly behaviour issues, fifthly the
meaning for the wider school community and finally concerns about the lack of
pedagogical content knowledge. Through the support of colour coding the
magnitude of data were interpreted while sets of meanings within these themes
were identified with the focus on keywords and phrases which developed into
categories.
The thesis supports Darling-Hammond’s (2006) proposition that effective
teachers need to understand and respond to the multifaceted nature of the
environment in which they function and realise how they relate to this
environment. The new information offered through this thesis will assist
principals, teachers, and educational leaders to develop an in-depth
understanding of the meaning of the out-of-field experiences in order to
effectively manage the out-of-field teaching situation. An awareness of the
impact out-of-field teaching has on the teaching and learning environment has
the potential to influence policy transformation and education leaders’ decisionmaking about recruitment and support strategies while focusing on the needs of
out-of-field teachers within the classrooms. This thesis offers new
understanding about teachers’ experiences in out-of-field positions with
implications for the improvement of retention of teachers.
UQ eSpace. (n.d.). https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:330372
Greater Good Science Center. (2019, October 29). Positive staff relationships |
Greater
good
in
education.
Greater
Good
in
Education. https://ggie.berkeley.edu/school-relationships/positive-staffrelationships/
Wong, K., & Wong, K. (2023, November 7). Organizational Culture:
definition,
importance,
and
development.
Achievers. https://www.achievers.com/blog/organizational-culture-definition/
81
Jukić, D. (2022). The role of teacher and organizational culture in school
management. Strategic
Management, 27(2),
17–
28. https://doi.org/10.5937/straman2200009j
Barile, N. 9 Ways to Build Strong Teacher Relationships with Colleagues.
(n.d.).
Hey
Teach! https://www.wgu.edu/heyteach/article/9-ways-to-build-
strong-teaecher-relationships-with-colleagues1909.html
Lopes, J., & Oliveira, C. (2020). Teacher and school determinants of teacher job satisfaction: A
multilevel analysis. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 31(4), 641-659.