PREVALENCE OF CHILD
MALTREATMENT AND CHILDREN'S HUMAN CAPABILITIES
IN ARUBA
CHILDREN, OUR PRESENT AND OUR
FUTURE: HOW DO WE TREAT THEM?
PART 2
INTRODUCTION
Child maltreatment is any form of abuse which is violent or threatening for a child under the age of 18 years and causes harm. It can
be perpetrated by someone in authority, such as a parent, guardian,
teacher, coach, or clergy. Children can also abuse other children.
There are many forms of child maltreatment. These include physical, emotional, neglect, sexual abuse or children witnessing domestic violence.
Child maltreatment violates the rights of the child and has detrimental effects on children’s emotional and behavioural outcomes
that linger into adulthood. This study attempts to theorize child maltreatment as a capability deprivation using a human development
perspective embedded in a Rights-based Approach and the Human
Capability Approach (HCA).
RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) makes provisions
for children’s survival, development, and protection. This study focusses on Article #19:
“Government must do all they can to ensure that children are
protected from all forms of physical, emotional, injury or abuse,
neglect, exploitation, sexual abuse by their parents or anyone else
who looks after them” (CRC, art. 19).
HUMAN CAPABILITY APPROACH (HCA)
The HCA was inspired by Amartya Sen (1999, 2005), with subsequent contributions by Martha Nussbaum (2000, 2008, 2011). They
lament that economic-based measurements like Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) says nothing about the quality of life and they developed new approaches to measure human development. This study
utilized Nussbaum’s 10 Central Human Capabilities that she argues
are constitutional guarantees for human development (see Box 1).
Box 2: Research Questions
1. What is the prevalence rate of child maltreatment in Aruba?
2. What are the sociodemographic factors that predict child maltreatment?
3. How is having experienced child maltreatment in the past year
or any moment in a child’s life related to achieving the 10 central human capabilities necessary for human development?
high schools and Grades 7 – 12 in the private high schools. The
children represented all 8 districts of Aruba.
PROFILE OF THE CHILDREN
Sex:
• Boys: 43.4% (n=388)
• Girls: 55.3% (n=495)
• 1.3% (n=12) did not disclose their sex
Country of Origin of Children:
• Aruba:
77.4%
• The Netherlands:
5.1%
• Colombia:
4.4%
• 28 other countries:
13.1%
CHILDREN’S FAMILY TYPE
Most of the children lived with both parents (48.0%) and with single mothers (36.0%).
RESULTS
Prevalence of Child Maltreatment
The results revealed a lifetime prevalence of child maltreatment at
78.4% (n=702) and a year prevalence of 50.2% (n=449). More girls
than boys experienced maltreatment both during their lifetime and
in the past year (See Figure 1). As regards to type of maltreatment,
both boys and girls experienced maltreatment of varying types.
However, slightly more boys than girls experienced sexual abuse
within and outside the family in the past year.
Figure 1: Child Maltreatment Prevalence by Sex
Box 1: 10 Central Human Capabilities (Nussbaum, 2011)
Human Capabilitie 1: Life
Human Capabilitie 2: Bodily health
Human Capabilitie 3: Bodily integrity
Human Capabilitie 4: Senses, imagination and thought
Human Capabilitie 5: Emotions
Human Capabilitie 6: Practical reason
Human Capabilitie 7: Affiliation
Human Capabilitie 8: Other species
Human Capabilitie 9: Play
Human Capabilitie 10: Control over one’s environment
METHODOLOGY
A Child Maltreatment and Children's Human Capabilities self-administered digital survey was conducted with 895 children, 12 –
17 years, in 2019. The mean age was 14.5, (SD=1.5). The children
were randomly selected from 11 high schools and 73 classrooms.
The children were from ‘ciclo basico’ and Grades 1 - 4 in the public
PREVALENCE OF CHILD MALTREATMENT BY TYPE
Physical abuse was the most prevalent type of maltreatment during
children's lifetime at 80.0%1, followed by emotional abuse at
62.2%, and neglect was the least prevalent at 17.4% (see Figure 2).
When sexual abuse was disaggregated according to two subtypes:
(i) sexual abuse within the family and (ii) sexual abuse outside of
the family, sexual abuse within the family emerged as the least
1
Physical abuse prevalence is at 80.0%, higher than the national prevalence
because it was not used to compute the national prevalence. Only Severe
Physical abuse was used.
prevalent type of maltreatment at 8.7% (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Child Maltreatment Lifetime Prevalence
the family’ as the least prevalent type of maltreatment. The Web of
Child Maltreatment provides useful information to inform policy
and public education messages for prevention.
Figure 4: Web of Child Maltreatment
Sexual abuse within family:
8.7%
Sexual abuse outside family: 16.5%
For year prevalence, physical abuse was the most prevalent at
45.0%, followed by emotional abuse at 41.9%, and sexual abuse
was the least prevalent at 8.9% (see Figure 3). Neglect was not measured for year prevalence.
Figure 3: Child Maltreatment Year Prevalence
Sexual abuse within family: 2.8%
Sexual abuse outside family: 7.8%
CHILD MALTREATMENT PREVALENCE BY AGE
As children grow older, they are more likely to experience:
• Emotional abuse
• Severe physical abuse
• Witness interparental violence
• Sexual abuse within and outside of the family
However, children are less likely to experience physical abuse as
they grow older.
POLYVICTIMIZATION OF CHILD MALTREATMENT
Most children (35.0%) experienced at least three types of maltreatment during their lifetime, and 19.2% experienced at least two.
Only 4.7% of the children experienced one type of maltreatment
during their lifetime. These results indicate that child protection
services must introduce a policy for polyvictimization screening in
suspected and actual cases of maltreatment.
WEB OF CHILD MALTREATMENT
The Fuzzy Synthetic Evaluation (FSE) results to rank child maltreatment indicators, revealed Aruba's child maltreatment profile
(see Figure 4). The Web represents the entanglement of child maltreatment. It presents the most common indicators of the six types
of maltreatment. The web begins with physical abuse as the most
prevalent type of maltreatment and ends with sexual abuse within
the family. The Web presents the most common indicators of the
six types of maltreatment. It begins with ‘physical abuse’ as the
most prevalent type of maltreatment, matched with the most common indicator ‘pinching’. The Web ends with ‘sexual abuse within
SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS OF CHILD MALTREATMENT
Age, gender, and socioeconomic status were the most common predictors of child maltreatment.
• Age: The older the children the more likely they were at risk
of witnessing interparental violence and being sexually abused
outside of the family.
•
• Gender: Girls were more likely to witness interparental violence than boys. Meanwhile, boys were more likely to be at
risk of experiencing sexual abuse outside the family than girls.
•
Socioeconomic status: Were predictors of neglect and children witnessing interparental violence.
Parent's level of education and father's employment were also predictors of child maltreatment.
•
Children who lived with mothers whose highest level of education was at the MAVO were more likely to experience interpa-
rental violence. Meanwhile, children who lived in households
where the father’s highest level of education was at the HBO
were less likely to witness interparental violence.
•
Children who lived with fathers who were employed were at
higher risk of being sexually abused outside the family.
Ethnicity and family type, including single motherhood were not
associated with child maltreatment.
Physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse within the family were not associated with any sociodemographic factors measured
in this study. A body of literature in the Caribbean region has described physical and emotional abuse as normalized behaviour that
is sanctioned by parents, teachers, and even children themselves
(UNICEF 2019; Terborg et al., 2018; Sutton & Alvarez, 2016). This
might be the reason for non-predictors for physical and emotional
abuse and needs further inquiry within the Aruban context.
MENTAL HEALTH AND A CALL FOR HELP
Children identified ‘mental health’ as their main concern, when
asked to write additional comments at the end of the survey. This
was followed by ‘a call for help’ and ‘child maltreatment’ narratives.
HELP SEEKING EXPERIENCES TO COPE WITH MALTREATMENT
Of the children who experienced maltreatment, nearly one-third
(27.9%) sought help, leaving the significant majority to remain with
the trauma without any psychosocial support
(see Figure 5).
Table 1: Informal Sectors Where Children Receive Help
Informal Sectors
Percentage
%
Friend
Mother
Extended family
Father
Sister
Brother
Neighbour
Total
25.0
22.7
17.7
14.5
9.9
7.3
2.9
100.0
CHILD MALTREATMENT AND HUMAN CAPABILITIES
Pearson’s correlation results revealed significant relationships
amongst all types of child maltreatment and the 10 Central Human
Capabilities with scores ranging from r=.097 to r=.265. This signifies that child maltreatment can disrupt or constrain children's
evolving capabilities to enjoy lives worthy of their human dignity
and flourish.
The Fuzzy Synthetic Evaluation (FSE) was used to rank the capabilities and their associated indicators children most and least enjoyed over a lifetime (see Table 2).
Table 2: Ranking of Human Capabilities for Children who Experience Lifetime Maltreatment
Ranking
Human Capabilities
Least Enjoyed
1st
2.16
2nd
Control over one’s
environment
Other species
Somewhat Enjoyed
3nd
4nd
Bodily health
Affiliation
1.96
1.94
Enjoyed
5nd
6nd
Play
Life
1.88
1.87
Moderately Enjoyed
7nd
8nd
Practical reason
Emotions
1.79
1.78
Most Enjoyed
9nd
10nd
Bodily integrity
Senses, imagination
and thought
1.75
1.69
Figure 5: Children who seek help for maltreatment
HELP RECEIVED FROM THE FORMAL SECTOR
Cumulatively, one-third (32.8%) of the children sought help to cope
with unpleasant childhood experiences within the school setting:
• 11.4%: Mentors
•
8.1%: Teachers
•
5.2%: School Advisors
•
4.8%: School Counsellors
•
3.3%: School Social Workers
This illustrates the essential role of schools in identifying and helping children who experience childhood adversities early.
HELP RECEIVED FROM THE INFORMAL SECTOR
Within the informal setting, (25.0%) of the children reported going
to their friends for assistance, followed by their mothers, 22.7%),
extended family members (17.7%) and fathers (14.5%). These results reflect the essential role of friendship groups and family members in cultivating capability spaces for children to live lives of dignity after adverse childhood experiences (see Table 1).
Enjoyment
Level (EL)
Index
Level of Enjoyment
2.02
CAPABILITIES CHILDREN MOST ENJOYED
The two capabilities most enjoyed were 'Senses, imagination and
thought' (EL 1.69) and 'Bodily integrity' (EL 1.75). Children’s enjoyment of ‘Senses, imagination and thought’ signify that they can
imagine their lives in the future, think, reason, and use their senses. ‘Bodily integrity’ imply that the children most enjoyed moving freely visiting relatives or friends, followed by being free from
discrimination and abuse. This result is counterintuitive, given the
high prevalence rate of maltreatment found among the respondents.
The results appear to reinforce the normalization of the two most
prevalent types of abuse; physical and emotional.
CAPABILITIES CHILDREN LEAST ENJOYED
• ‘Control over one’s environment’ (EL 2.16)
• ‘Other species’ (EL2.02)
• ‘Bodily health’ (EL1.96)
The first two means that the children did not enjoy political participation, freedom of speech and association and living in a clean
CONCLUSIONS
• Prevalence of child maltreatment in Aruba is high.
• 8 out of every 10 children at risk of maltreatment over their lifetime and 5 out of every 10 children within the last 12 months.
• Most children experience at least three types of maltreatment
in their lifetime.
• Physical and emotional abuse are the most prevalent types of
maltreatment.
• Most of the children go to the school and their friends for help.
• Children have mental health concerns and need urgent support.
• Age, gender and socioeconomic status are the most common
predictors of maltreatment.
• Consistent relationships were found amongst all types of child
maltreatment with Nussbaum's list of 10 Central Human Capabilities, thus indicating that children were deprived of enjoying
the capabilities necessary for human development.
• Nussbaum argues that “a society that does not guarantee these
10 capabilities to all its citizens, at some appropriate threshold
level, falls short of being a fully just society” (2006, p.75). The
study therefore concludes that children who experience
maltreatment in Aruba, may not enjoy the minimum threshold
of capabilities required to flourish, enjoy wellbeing, and the
freedom to live valuable lives.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Aruba is already implementing the gold standard of the INSPIRE
Seven Strategies in its child safety programs. The recommendations
emanating from this study are also presented within the INSPIRE
framework. An eighth strategy is added to address professional selfcare. See Table 3 for recommendations.
Table 3: Recommendations
5. Income and economic
strengthening
11.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Appoint at least one School Social Worker in every school.
Introduce Peer Counselling Programs in high schools to support friendship groups.
Introduce capabilities and rights-based normative checklist
for child protection screening.
Include polyvictimization in child maltreatment risk assessment.
Introduce Trauma-Informed Teaching at IPA and in schools.
Introduce Trauma-Inform Care in social service agencies, and
with children in residential and foster care.
Continue the widespread implementation of ‘Signs of Safety.’
Social Work and Development Program at the University of
Aruba to embed the ‘Signs of Safety’ in its curriculum.
Organize a ‘Child Summit.’
Sustained child safety public awareness programs focused on
age and gender-specific messages.
Make available gender and age-appropriate child maltreatment interactive online awareness courses in Dutch, Papiamento, English and Spanish.
Revamp the Association of School Social Workers to create
opportunities for its members to plan and advocate for organizational policies to provide ‘intervision’ and supervision,
mindfulness workspaces, lifelong training, and other materials to support their professionalism and self-care.
REFERENCES
Nussbaum, M. C. (2000). Women and Human Development: The Capabilities
Approach. Cambridge University Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2008). Women and Human Development: The Capabilities
Approach. Cambridge University Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2011). Creating Capabilities: The Human Development
Approach. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Sutton, Heather & Alvarez, Lucciana. (2016). How safe are Caribbean homes for
women and children? Attitudes toward intimate partner violence and
corporal punishment. Available at: https://publications.iadb.org/publi
cations/english/document/How-Safe-Are-Caribbean-Homes-for-Wom
en-and-Children-Attitudes-toward-Intimate-Partner-Violence-and-Cor
poral-Punishment.pdf
1.
3.
Public education programs for the purpose of shifting age and
gendered societal norms and values.
Terborg, J., Benschop, R., Panday, S. G., Lalai, C., Manohar, M., Nieuwendam, J.,
Sanches, M., & de Vries, S. (2018). Violence Against Children in
Suriname (Geweld Tegen Kinderen in Suriname). (2018). Institute for
Graduate Studies and Research, Anton de Kom University of Suriname.
4.
Expand the 161 free services of Child Helpline ‘Telefon pa
Huventud’ to provide dedicated online mental health counselling for children and youth.
UNICEF. (2019). Situation Analysis Children and Adolescents in the Caribbean
Netherlands. Available at: https://www.unicef.nl/files/Sitan_BES_2019_
ENG_%20corr%2029juni20.pdf
5.
6.
National parenting and community education program.
Strengthen and expand home visitation programs for parent
and caregiver support for at risk children and their parents.
Develop more robust partnerships between home and school.
4. Parent and caregiver support
2. Norms 1. Implementation
and
and enforcement of
values
laws
Recommendations
10.
Government must continue providing financial resources to
support child protection programs and services.
Private and commercial sectors to invest in child protection
programs through ‘Public-Private Partnerships’ (PPP).
Strengthen the socioeconomic status of parents through conditional social protection assistance.
Subsidize childcare for parents who work with minimum
wage.
3. Safe
environments
INSPIRE
strategies
9.
12.
13.
6. Response and support services
feeling happy
feeling self-love and worthy
inner peace and spirituality
living in a comfortable and safe home
7. Education and life
skills
•
•
•
•
8.
8. Professional
self-care
environment with opportunities to express concerns for animals,
plants and the world of nature. 'Bodily health', the third capability
least enjoyed by children, bears relevance to maltreatment. This implies that children were deprived of enjoying health, nutrition, and
adequate shelter. The indicators associated with this capability in
ranking order are the following:
2.
7.
Design a population-based friendly version of the ‘Codigo di
Proteccion’ that will include easy steps for every citizen and
resident to make child safety their responsibility.
Develop a capabilities-based child protection normative
checklist to evaluate child protection policies.
CONTACT
Clementia Eugene, PhD Candidate & Lecturer
Department of Social Work and Development
Faculty of Arts and Science
University of Aruba
@ January 2023
clementia.eugene@ua.aw