PERSPECTIVES ON
INDIVIDUAL DYNAMICS
Kajari Mukherjee
Behavior
Behavior: The way one acts or conducts oneself in
response to stimuli.
One’s behavior is multi-determined and multi-motivated
process……
Contingency approach – a perspective suggesting that
organisational behavior is affected by a large number of
interacting factors. How someone will behave is contingent on
many different variables at once.
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response
(OB modification)
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Anchors
Systematic research
anchor
OB should study organizations using
systematic research methods
Multidisciplinary
anchor
OB should import knowledge from other
disciplines, not just create its own
knowledge
Contingency anchor
OB theory should recognize that the
effects of actions often vary with the
situation
Multiple level of
analysis anchor
OB events should be understood from
three levels of analysis: individual, team,
organisations
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Contributing Disciplines
Measure,
explain &
sometime
change
behavior of
humans
•
People’s
relation to
social
environment
or culture
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
Focus on
people’s
influence
on one
another
Study societies to
learn about human
beings and
activities
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Intuition and Systematic Study
• Gut feelings
Intuition
• Individual observation
• Common sense
• Looks at relationships
Systematic Study
(cause-effect)
• Scientific evidence
• Predicts behaviors
Use evidence as much as possible to inform your intuition and
experience. That is the promise of OB.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Types of Study Variables
Independent (X)
Dependent (Y)
• The presumed cause of the
change in the dependent
variable (Y).
• This is the variable that OB
researchers manipulate to
observe the changes in Y.
• This is the response to X
(the independent variable).
• It is what the OB
researchers want to predict
or explain.
• The interesting variable!
X
Y
Predictive Ability
Eg, Hawthorne studies
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Interesting OB Dependent Variables: work
outcome variables
• Productivity
• Transforming inputs to outputs at lowest cost. Includes the concepts
of effectiveness (achievement of goals) and efficiency (meeting
goals at a low cost).
• Absenteeism
• Failure to report to work – a huge cost to employers.
• Turnover
• Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an
organization.
• Deviant Workplace Behavior
• Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and
thereby threatens the well-being of the organization and/or any of
its members.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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More Interesting OB Dependent Variables
• Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
• Discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee’s
formal job requirements, but that nevertheless promotes
the effective functioning of the organization (eg, covering for
a sick colleague, noticing a flaw in work process).
• Job Satisfaction
• A general attitude (not a behavior) toward one’s job; a
positive feeling of one's job resulting from an evaluation of
its characteristics.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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OB - evolution
• Scientific management (downplayed the human dimensions):
➢ Time and motion studies (bottom up)
▪ Designing jobs as efficiently as possible
▪ Carefully selecting & training people (Taylor)
• Classical organizational theory
➢ Efficient way to organize work in an organization
▪ Division of labour (Fayol) (top down)
• Human relations movement
➢ Importance of social processes in work settings (Mayo)
➢ Hawthorne studies: social conditions existing in a organization – how
employees are treated by management and relationships they have with
one another – influence job performance
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Management Roles
• Discovered ten managerial roles – sets of behaviors in their
work
• Separated into three groups:
➢ Interpersonal
➢ Informational
➢ Decisional
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles: Interpersonal
Symbolic head – required
to perform routine duties of
a legal or social nature
Figurehead
Maintains a network of
outside contacts who
provide favours and
information
Leader
Liaison
Provides motivation and
Direction of employees;
hiring and disciplining
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles: Informational
Serves as a nerve center
of internal and external
information
Monitor
Transmits information from
outsiders or from other
employees to others inside
Spokesperson
Transmits information
to outsiders on plans,
policies, actions & results
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
Disseminator
Informational Roles
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Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles: Decisional
organisation and
•Searches
environment for opportunities
& initiates projects to bring
about change
Entrepreneur
Corrective action when
organisation faces important,
unexpected disturbances
Disturbance
handler
Negotiator
Responsible for
Representing the
organisation at
major negotiations
Resource allocator
Makes or approves
significant organisational
decisions
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Values, Attitudes and behavior
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Beliefs and Values
➢Beliefs: what ‘is’ known about the world (eg, life after death,
walking under ladder brings ill luck)
➢Values: what should be and what is desirable
Basic convictions on how to conduct yourself or how to
live a life that is personally or socially preferable – “How
To” live life properly.
Viewed as a conception, explicit or implicit, of what an
individual or a group regards as desirable, and in terms of
which he or they select, from among alternative available
modes, the means and ends of action. Judgemental
Element
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Generational Values
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Attitudes
• Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects,
people, or events
Three components of an attitude:
I don’t like lazy people
Affective
Cognitive
The opinion or
belief segment
of an attitude
(evaluating)
Behavioral
Attitude
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
The emotional or
feeling segment
of an attitude
(feeling)
An intention to
behave in a certain
way toward someone
or something (action)
I try to avoid boss when I can
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Does Behavior Always Follow from Attitudes?
• Leon Festinger – No, the reverse is sometimes true!
• Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or
more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes people who will
change what they say so it doesn’t contradict their behavior.
•
Individuals seek to reduce this uncomfortable gap, or dissonance, to
reach stability and consistency
•
Consistency is achieved by changing the attitudes (CHANGE), modifying
the behaviors (CHANGE) , or through rationalization (DENY)(deny any
linkage of smoking and health or brainwash about benefit of smoking
or rationalise benefits) or AVOID
•
Desire to reduce dissonance depends on:
•
•
•
Importance of elements creating it (eg bribe taking)
Degree of individual influence in the situation (eg, it is institutionalised)
Rewards involved in dissonance (eg, reward here is great)
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Predicting Behavior from Attitudes
• The more frequently expressed an attitude, the better
predictor it is (attitudes that our memory can access easily –
so talk more about it…if you want to shape your behavior)
• The more tightly related the attitude is to values we hold
dear, the stronger the relationship will be to the behavior.
• High social pressures reduce the relationship and may cause
dissonance but social pressures to behave in certain ways
hold exceptional powers (eg, executives in ENRON).
• Attitudes based on personal experience are stronger
predictors.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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PERCEPTION
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Environment is complex
•➢The ‘simplified’ model is likely to be:
➢Categorical thinking – organising people or objects in preconceived categories stored in long term memory to achieve
closure.
➢ Mental models: broad world views or “theories-in-use” that
people rely on.
➢ Selective Attention: Filtering information received by our
senses; perceivers expectations and innate drives also adds to it.
Source: McShane & Glinow 2007: 45-46
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Perceptions and Emotions
➢Perception - Process through which we assign
meaning to the world around us
➢Nothing but simplified models that we construct to deal with
environment complexity
➢We decide what to notice, how to categorise this information, and how
to interpret within the framework of our existing knowledge
➢The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Factors That Influence Perception
Situational Factors:
- Time
- Work setting: Role
- Social setting
Perceiver:
- Attitudes
- Motives
Oragnisation
- Interests
- Experience
and arrangement
- Expectations
of stimuli
Selection of
Stimuli
stimuli:
from the
environment Screening or
filtering
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
Perception
Perceived:
- Novelty
Pattern of behavior
- Background
- Proximity
- Similarity
Logic and meaning
- Size
to the individual
- Reputation
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Influencers in perception
• Accuracy of perception is influenced by:
• Nature of situation, perceiver and perceived
• Nature of relationship between the perceiver and the
other person
• The amount of information available to the perceiver and
the order in which the information is received
• The nature and extent of interaction between the two
people
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Attribution
➢Attribution – The process through which individuals attempt to
determine (that is, judge) the causes behind their own and others’
behavior
➢Correspondent Inferences - based on one evidence. Judging
disposition based on behavior:
I have seen an action and come to judgement about his disposition, traits and
characteristics
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Attribution
▪Causal Attribution: Asking the question “why”?
➢Internal causes of behavior: explanations based on
actions for which the individual is responsible
➢External causes of behavior: explanation based on
situations over which the individual has no control
To know if the action is caused due to internal or external
factors :
Consensus: others behave in same manner
Consistency: does he behave in same fashion in
other such situations
Distinctiveness: does he behave in same fashion
in other contexts
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Systematic Biases in attribution
People are not equally predisposed to reach judgement regarding
internal and external causality.
➢Self serving bias: Tendency to attribute external causes for our
failures and internal causes for success.
➢Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to attribute internal
causes when focusing on someone else’s behavior.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Perceptual biases:
➢Selective perception:
➢See based on their own interests, background, experience and
attitudes.
➢Focus on some aspects of the environment while ignoring others.
➢Similar-to-me effect:
➢Perceive people positively who are believed to be similar to the
perceiver:
➢eg, work values and habits, belief about the way things should be done,
similarity to demographic variables, etc.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Systematic Biases in attribution
• ➢Halo / Horn effect:
➢Draw a general impression about a person based on a single
characteristic like appearance, sociability, etc.
➢Self – fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalino/Golem effect):
➢Expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way
that is consistent with those expectations.
➢Stereotyping:
➢Judging someone based on one’s perception of the group to
which that person belongs.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Systematic Biases in attribution
➢Contrast effect:
➢evaluations of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparision
with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the
same characteristics.
➢First Impression error:
➢Tendency to base judgement of others on our initial impressions of them.
➢Projection:
➢attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.
➢Project one’s own undesirable personal characteristics on others.
➢Project one’s own feelings on others.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Decision Making
Cognitive biases
• Overconfidence Bias
– Believing too much in our own ability to make good decisions,
especially when outside of own expertise – we are far too much
optimistic
• Anchoring Bias
– Using early, first received information as the basis for making
subsequent judgments – fixated with initial info.
– In other words, initial data or reference points have too much
influence on the final estimates or choices that we make.
• We also get anchored to irrelevant data presented….
• Confirmation Bias
– Selecting and using only facts that support our decision (to
reaffirm past choices) (we see what we want (or expect) to see)
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
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Decision Making
Cognitive biases (more…)
• Availability Bias
– Emphasizing information that is most readily at hand:
• Availability: Vividness and recency (ease of recall of
instances of an event) tend to make us overestimate its
likelihood.
• Randomness Error
– Creating meaning out of random events – stitch together
random events(eg, superstitions)
• Risk Aversion
– The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount
over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might
have a higher expected payoff
• Hindsight Bias
– After an outcome is already known, believing it could have
been accurately predicted beforehand
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
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Decision Making
Guarding Against Biases
✓ Be aware of cognitive biases (built-in heuristics)
✓ Adopt multiple perspectives
✓ Act as Devil’s Advocate: Question assumptions, check inferences
✓ Consider the improbable or the unpopular
✓ Make incremental decisions: Collect feedback, use real options
approach
✓ Use probability and statistics
✓ Use frameworks and models: Derived from theory or developed by
experts
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
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Emotions and U
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Emotion vs Mood
• Emotion: Intense feeling that is directed at someone or
something
• Emotions are a natural part of a individual’s makeup.
• Spread of emotions is contagious
• Expression of emotions is universal
• Culture determines how and when people express
emotions: DISPLAY RULES
• Mood: Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions, last
longer and donot have contextual stimulus.
• Expressing emotions appropriately: Timing, Context, Extent
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Types of labour
Emotional labour: the effort, planning and
control needed to express organisationally
desired emotions during interpersonal
Transactions. ABIDE BY DISPLAY RULES!
• Physical labour
• Mental labour : cognitive capabilities
• Emotional labour : when an employee expresses
organisationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions
• Felt emotion: your actual emotion
• Displayed emotion: emotion that you are required to
display
• Intensity
• Frequency
• Duration
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Emotional Intelligence
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Emotional Intelligence
• For star performers, two thirds of their abilities are based on EI,
rest on technical expertise and raw intelligence.
• People with high degree of EI outperform others, even if their IQ
is less.
• IQ can’t be changed, but EI can be consciously developed.
• Plasticity of brain allows EI to be cultivated.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Definition
The ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information
• EI refers to the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings
and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide one’s thinking and actions. (Salovey &
Mayer: 1990: 189)
• Five dimensions:
➢ Self awareness: aware of what you are feeling
➢ Self management: to manage emotions & impulses
➢ Self motivation: persist in the face of setbacks & failures
➢ Empathy: to sense how others are feeling
➢ Social skills: to handle emotions of others
The capacities to create optimal results in your
relationships with others – EI
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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The Five Dimensions
- Empathy
- Emotional Self
- Listener
Awareness
Self
Empathy
- Attuned to
- Accurate Self
Awareness
feelings
Assessment
Feeling for others
Introspection
- Coaching
- Self Confidence
- Service
Orientation
EI
- Self Control
- Mood Maker
- Consciousness
- Inspirational
- Transparency
leadership Social Skills
Self
- Trustworthiness
- InfluenceAbility to make friends with a purpose
Management - Initiative
- Change catalyst
- Optimism
Delay of gratification
- Achievement
- Conflict Management
- Performance
Decisive life skill Orientation
Orientation
Motivation
- Adaptability
- Perseverance
anger, anxiety,
Persistence
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
sadness
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Why is EI important?
• Decision making: Rational as well as intuitive
• Motivation : Employee engagement
• Leadership : Charging up people
• Interpersonal conflict : Getting people work through their conflicts
• Deviant workplace behavior : Linked to negative emotions
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Personality and U
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Personality
➢Enduring characteristics that influence an individual’s behavior
(personality traits)
➢Relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions and behaviors that
characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those
characteristics.
➢Sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others
(observable patterns of behavior)
➢Generally, it is considered to be stable and consistent.
➢Usually described in terms of the measurable traits a person exhibits.
➢Dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s
whole psychological system; it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater
than the sum of the parts.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Personality stabilises with time
• Personality development and change happens mainly until
young adulthood; it stabilises by the time people reach 30;
although some changes may continue to age 50.
• Reason being that we form a clearer and a more rigid self
concept as we get older. This increasing clarity of “who we are”
serves as an anchor for our behaviour because the executive
function – that part of brain which manages goal-directed
behaviour- tries to keep our behaviour consistent with our self
concept.
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Heredity sets the outer limit, but an individual’s full potential is determined by how
well he adjusts to the demands and requirements of the environment.
Determinants
➢Heredity:
➢ Traits like shyness, fear, distress. Look at young children
➢ Temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, biological
rhythms
➢ Genetics account for about 50% of the personality differences, and more
than 30% of the variation in occupational and leisure interests in twins
➢ Environment:
➢ Eg, in USA, themes of industriousness, success, competition,
independence and protestant work ethic, leads their citizens to be
ambitious and aggressive.
- Studies of thousands of twins separated at birth indicate that the hereditary
determinants for personality play a stronger role than the environment.
- Individual job satisfaction is remarkably stable over time. This indicates that satisfaction
is determined by something inherent in the person rather than by external environmental
factors.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Determinants
➢ Situation:
• Influences the effects of both heredity and environment.
• Puts constraints on behavior, eg, behavior in temple or job
interview vs that in a picnic.
So, for a manager, this provides an opportunity to create
situation that mould the personality for enabling behavior.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Five Factor Test
• 17000 words to describe a person’s personality – initially
combined to derive 171 personality traits
• Distilled to five abstract personality dimensions – Five core
personality traits:
• It taps five basic dimensions.
• These encompass most of the significant variation in
human personality
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Nomothetic: The Big Five Model; Taps into
five basic dimensions
Trait
What it means
Conscien- The person is responsible, hardworking, organised, persistent and
tiousness dependable, goal-focused, thorough, methodical, disciplined,
industrious: RELIABILITY
Agreeable
-ness
The person is cooperative, warm, and agreeable, trusting, helpful, goodnatured, considerate, generous, flexible, tolerant, self less: PROPENSITY TO
DEFER TO OTHERS (friendly compliance)
Neuroticism
Emotional
stability
Anxious, insecure, self-conscious, depressed, temperamental,
hostility, self-consicousness
The person is calm, self-confident, and cool: ABILITY TO
WITHSTAND STRESS
Openness
to
experience
The person is creative, curious, cultured, imaginative,
unconventional, aesthetically perceptive, autonomous :
FASCINATION WITH NOVELTY, RANGE OF INTERETS
Extraversion
The person is gregarious, assertive, and sociable, talkative,
energetic, outgoing: COMFORT LEVEL WITH RELATIONSHIPS
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Big Five Traits
• Research has shown Big Five to be a better framework.
• Helps in people-job fit :
• Strongly related to work performance across many
professions and across several performance measures (eg, on
work, training)
• Highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge, exert greater
effort, and have better performance.; strongly linked to work
performance.
• Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction; next strongly linked to
work performance.
• Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good social skills;
but impulsive. They do well in certain types of jobs.
• Open people are more creative and can be good leaders.
• Agreeable people are good in social-related jobs, eg customer-service,
conflict handling situations; but not successful in careers as they may
not negotiate well – busy pleasing others….
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Personality and workplace (situational factors
and characteristics of those in setting have an impact)
•
•
•
•
•
Traits reflects an individual’s behavioural tendencies ….predicting some
workplace behaviour & outcomes
Cluster around the broad characteristics of:
• CAlowN = “getting along”
• OEClowN = “getting ahead”
C and lowN = best predicts individual performance in almost every job group –
energize a willingness to fulfil work obligation (C) with established rules and to
allocate resources to accomplish those tasks (lowN)
(Caveat= less than 10% of performance is due to personality trait of C. Generally
speaking, C=> on performance, job satisfaction, motivation)
More specific types of employee behaviour (niche traits):
• E = sales and management jobs
• A = team based, customer relations, conflict handling situations
• O = creative and adaptable to change
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MBTI: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
• Typologies based on mental processes everyone is capable of
using:
➢ Preferences differ….
• Myers-Briggs (1940s) developed the self-reporting test to
measure their preferences….by asking questions on how
people usually feel or act in particular situation
• Taps four characteristics (preferences to each) and classifies
people into 1 of 16 possible personality types.
• These are preferences….differences are to be understood,
celebrated and appreciated (eg, to understand work styles).
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MBTI
• People change as they grow, developing skills that broaden
their abilities to engage in behaviour that may not be “natural”
or preferred in early stages of life.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Participants are classified on four axes to determine one of
16 possible personality types, such as ENTJ.
Sociable,
Quiet, Shy,
Interactive,
Source of
Concentrating, energy
Assertive,
Reflective,
Outgoing,
Introverted
Unconscious
Extroverted
Thinks,
and
(I)
Speaks &
(E)
Processes, look at
then
speaks
then thinks
big picture, Genera
Practical and
possibilities,
Give
Orderly, prefer
Intuitive
Sensing (S)
attention &
(N)
Theoretical,
routine, Details,
collect
Abstract
Concrete,
information
Uses Values & Emotions,
Thinking
Specific
Feeling (F)
Use Reason
(T)
Heart, Subjective,
Process & Evaluate
Circumstances, Mercy
and Logic to
information &
handle problems,
Perceiving
Flexible and
Making decisions
Judging
(J)
Rules, Justice
(P)
Spontaneous,
Want Order
open-ended,
Orienting &
& Structure, Time oriented,
exploring,
Engaging with
Organized, Decisive
opportunity
outer world
focused
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Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
Psychometric tests
• They make decisions about people:
➢ More systematic
➢ More precise
• They predict future performance and reduce uncertainty
• They provide more accurate descriptions of people and their
behavior
• But,
➢ Tests should be seen as an additional source of information only
➢ Practice may have effect on test results
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Motivation
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
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Motivation
Motivation
• Latin term – to move
•It starts with:
•a psychological or physiological deficiency or need (motive), that:
•Need: psychological or physiological imbalance
•Need for food - drive to reduce hunger
•Need for friend – drive for affiliation
•activates a behaviour or a drive (action-orientation)
•attention and direction (channel),
•intensity (energize), and
•persistence (sustain)
•It ends with:
•Anything that alleviates a need or reduce a drive. Restores the
balance and reduce or cut off the drive. Eating food or obtaining
friends will restore balance/reduce drive.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
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Motivation
Motives (Needs)
• Physiological (biological, hardwired) motives
•Hunger, sleep, avoidance of pain, maternal concern
•Secondary (learned) motives
•Power, achievement, affiliation, security, status
•Extrinsic motives:
•Distributed by other people (reward, recognition,
punishment avoidance)
•Contingent based – given for a reason
•Intrinsic motives:
•Internally generated (feelings of responsibility, achievement,
accomplishment)
•Many motivators have both intrinsic and extrinsic components
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
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Motivation
Motivation Theories
•Content Theories:explains specific factors that motivates people.
What motivates people.
•Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, ERG theory, Herzberg’s
motivator & Hygiene theory, McLelland’s need theory
•Process Theories: the behavior is outcome of series of process
which can be understood and duplicated, provided certain
constant necessary conditions are met. How motivation
happens.
•Expectancy, Equity, Reinforcement
•Contemporary Theories:
•Equity & Justice theory
•Four Drives
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
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Growth needs that relate to individual achievement and the
development of human potential
Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the
next need becomes dominant.
Assumptions
Self-Actualization (capable of
becoming; includes growth, achieving
one’s potential, and self-fulfillment)
(TO TRANSFORM PERCEPTION OF
SELF INTO REALITY)
Higher Order
Esteem (internal esteem factors such
Internal
as self-respect, autonomy, and
Deficiency needs
that people must
master before they
can develop healthy
personality
Lower Order
Prof Kajari
Mukherjee, OB & HRM
External
– Individuals cannot move to the
next higher level until all needs
at the current (lower) level are
satisfied
achievement; and external esteem
factors such as status, recognition,
and attention.)
– Must move in hierarchical order
Social (affection, belongingness,
friendship, acceptance)
Cordial Relationship
Safety (physical & emotional harms)
Physiological (bodily needs)
Job security
Pay
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Motivation
ERG Theory
•Three groups of core needs:
•Existence: basic material existence requirements
•Relatedness: desire to maintain interpersonal relationship
•Growth: intrinsic desire for personal development
• Unlike Maslow, multiple needs operate as motivators at the
same time
• Frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher level need can
result in regression to a lower level need
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
60
Motivation
McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y
•Theory X assumptions are basically negative.
a. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever
possible, will attempt to avoid it.
b. Since employees dislike work, they must be
coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment.
•Theory Y assumptions are basically positive.
a. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest
or play.
b. People will exercise self-direction and self-control
if they are committed to the objectives.
•Major implication for Managers:
Participative decision making, responsible and challenging
jobs and good group relations will maximize motivation.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
61
Motivation
How work activities and the nature of one’s job influence motivation/performance
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Hygiene factors (relates to job context) consistently related to
job dissatisfaction:
•Extrinsic factors like supervision, pay, company policies, working
conditions, job security, relations with others
•
Motivator factors (relates to job content) consistently related to job
satisfaction:
• Intrinsic factors work itself, responsibility, achievement,
promotional opportunities, personal growth, recognition. Job is
intrinsically challenging & provides opportunities for recognition
& reinforcement
• Major implication for Managers:
• Job design, job enrichment, etc are important as hygiene factors
merely bring motivational factors to theoretical zero/floor level.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
62
Motivation
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
•Individuals posses several often competing needs that serve to
motivate when activated. People have varying levels of each of the
three needs (learned). Hard to measure
•Need for Achievement (nAch)
•The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to
strive to succeed. Defined as behavior directed toward competition
with a standard of excellence
•Need for Power (nPow)
•The need to make others behave in a way that they would not
have behaved otherwise. Need to have a control over one’s
environment
•Need for Affiliation (nAff)
•The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
63
Motivation
Equity Theory
•Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of
relevant others.
•When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no
tension as the situation is considered fair
•When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
•Underrewarded states cause anger
•Overrewarded states cause guilt
•Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into
equity
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
64
Motivation
Goal-Setting Theory
•Basic Premise: goals play an important part in determining
behavior
•That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated
feedback, lead to higher performance
•It improves performance in two ways:
•By amplifying the intensity and persistence of efforts
•By giving employees clearer role perceptions so that their effort
is channeled towards behavior that will improve work
performance
•Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
•Goal commitment (the more public the better!):
•Believes that he can achieve the same
•Wants to achieve the goal
•Task characteristics (simple, well-learned – not novel, independent and
not inter dependent)
•Self efficacy – belief about having the capacity to perform
•Culture bound
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
65
Motivation
Reinforcement Theory
•Similar to goal-setting theory, but focused on a behavioral
approach rather than a cognitive one.
•Behavior is environmentally caused
•Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important
•Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
•Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers
•Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of
behavior
•Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely
to be the sole cause
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
66
Motivation
Expectancy Theory
• The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on
the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by
a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to
the individual.
Expectancy of
performance
success
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
Instrumentality of
success in getting
reward
Valuation of the
reward in
employee’s eyes
67
Motivation
Justice Theory
Procedural Justice
•Fairness of process to
make the decision
Distributive
Justice
Interactional
Justice
•Fairness of outcome
•“Get what they
deserve”
•Being treated with
dignity and respect
Related to job satisfaction,
OCB, performance, attrition.
Overall perception
of what is fair in the
workplace.
Organizational
Justice
- Employee is given full explanation
- Concerns are treated with respect
- Give employee a “voice”- allow him
- to express his concern and
perspective on the issue
Equity theory serves as the foundation to understand the perceived fairness
among various dimensions of justice.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
68
Motivation
An interesting model: grounded to our
evolutionary heritage
• Focused on four commonly measured workplace indicators of
motivation:
•Engagement: energy, effort and initiative employees bring
to their jobs
•Satisfaction: extent to which they feel that the company
meets their expectations at work and satisfies implicit and
explicit contracts with them
•Commitment: extent to which employees engage in
corporate citizenship
•Intention to quit: best proxy to employee turnover
Studies showed that organisation’s ability to meet these
fundamental drives explains about 60% of employees’
variance on motivational indicators.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
69
Motivation
Four Drive Theory
•
The drive to acquire: Seek, take, control, retain objects and
personal experiences
• Food, clothing, etc and social status and experiences like travel
and entertainment . Esteem needs. Enhancing one’s self-concept
through relative status and recognition. Foundation for
competition. Drive is insatiable as purpose of human motivation
is to achieve a higher position than others, & not just fulfil
physiological needs. reward system
• The drive to bond
• Kinship, associations, attachment to closest cohorts, linked to
+ve emotions like love, caring, and –ve emotions like loneliness,
anomie (breakdown of social norms). We form social-identities
by aligning with various groups. Motivates people to cooperate.
culture
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
70
Motivation
Four Drive Theory
•
The drive to comprehend (learn)
• Desire to make meaningful contribution, make sense of world
around us. Satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand
ourselves and the environment around us. If we observe
something that is inconcistent with or beyond our current
knowledge, we experience a tension that motivates us to close
the information gap. Growth and Self actualisation need. job
design
• The drive to defend:
• Fight or flight, protect ourselves physically and socially, quest to
create institutions that defend our relationships, our
acquisitions, our belief systems. Explains our resistance to
change
•
Performance Management, Resource Allocation Process
These four drives are innate and universal, hardwired in our brains.
Independent of each other. No hierarchy. A complete set of drives. First three
are proactive – we regularly try to fulfil them. Last one is reactive – it is
triggered by threat. Thus, Any notion of fulfilling drives is temporary at best.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
71
Interpersonal Effectiveness
Prof Kajari Mukherjee/ OB&HRM
72
Interpersonal Effectiveness
Interpersonal relationships
Behavior symptomatic of inadequate interpersonal relations:
• Communication problems
• Loss of motivation:
– Tiredness
– Preoccupation with other work
• Indiscriminate opposition
• Operational problems
– Difficulty in reaching decisions
– Inefficient division of labour
• Task distortions
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
73
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations
Orientation Behavior FIRO-B
• Schutz (1958): Our behavior in groups often parallels either our own
childhood’s behavior or our parent’s behavior.
• People have needs—& people need people. We express our needs,
at least in part, through our behaviors with other people. These
needs influence group behavior at two levels:
– They determine how we treat other people, and
– How we want others to treat us
• Schutz argues that groups offer members a way to satisfy these
basic needs.
• Need pattern is affected by person’s self concept, and in turn it
affects how he feel about self.
– A consciously selected level of inclusion brings about a feeling of significance.
– A self determined level of control leads to a feeling of competence
– A willing openness with others results in a feeling of lovability
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
74
Interpersonal Effectiveness
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations
Orientation Behavior FIRO-B
• FIRO-B is a psychological instrument developed to explain:
– how interpersonal needs affect behaviour and
relationships.
– how your behaviors might be interpreted in organizational
settings.
• Interpersonal behaviors are related to the dynamic of what we
express towards others and want from others.
• It is about behavior and should not be labeled as “personality
traits”
• Interpersonal – any interaction - real (face to face, by phone,
memo) or imagined.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
75
Interpersonal Effectiveness
Three aspects of interaction
• Inclusion: Need to establish and maintain satisfactory
interactions and associations with other people. Extent of
contact and prominence that a person seeks. Belongingness
– In or Out
– Who will you select to interact with?
– Primarily in the realm of group behavior
Descriptors: belonging, recognition, distinction, involvement,
participation
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
76
Interpersonal Effectiveness
Three aspects of interaction
• Control: person’s behavior with respect to responsibility,
power, influence and decision making – how much he desires
to influence or direct the power of others. Power and
influence
– Top or Bottom
– Who directs the flow of interaction?
Descriptors: power, responsibility, authority, consistency,
influence
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
77
Interpersonal Effectiveness
Three aspects of interaction
• Affection: a person’s behavior in forming close, personal
relationships with others. Love and affection, friendship
– Close or Far
– How open is the interaction with another?
– Primarily in the realm of one to one interactions
• Descriptors: personal ties, support, consensus, openness,
sensitivity
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
78
Interpersonal Effectiveness
LOW Expressed
Then:
Inclusion
Control
Affection
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
People might perceive
you as a cold fish,
“prickly” or abrupt
HIGH Expressed
Then:
Get stuck, don’t
progress, lose
credibility
Chaos reigns or your
agenda goes by the
wayside
Others feel left out,
lectured to, their
ideas aren’t invited
People feel their work
or contribution is
unappreciated, they
are a cog in the wheel
People are
uncomfortable, at the
extreme—sexual
harassment lawsuits79
Interpersonal Effectiveness
Insights from the FIRO-B: If you have…
HIGH Wanted
Then you may perceive
LOW Wanted
Then you may perceive
Lack of acknowledgement
Inclusion as negative, rejections as
devastating, being away as
“missing the action”
Most invitations as
obligatory, group time as
wasteful
Control
Any structuring as inadequate,
standard procedures as
comforting
Any control as too much;
plans and structures as
pressure, competitive
behavior as annoying
Affection
Lack of expressed concern
as insensitive, infrequent
feedback frustrating
Reassurances as superficial,
personal questions as
intrusive, emotions as
80
distracting/trying
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
Interpersonal Effectiveness
Effectiveness through Matching Needs:
Interpersonal Compatibility
• Originator incompatibility: When people who wish to act on
needs of ICA joins a group who wish to accept these
expressions of ICA
• Incompatibility: both want to control or both don’t want to control….. both
want to originate behavior associated with Control needs ……..leading to
conflict or abdication……
• Reciprocal compatibility: When A’s expressed behavior
matches what B wants, and B’s expressed behavior matches
what A wants.
• Interchange compatibility: When group members share
similar need strengths around ICA. Typically for I and A
• Incompatibility arises when one person emphasizes control needs highly
while the other person emphasizes affection needs highly
• Thus when interpersonal problem arise, one person is likely to define the
problem as one of control, while the other person will define it as one of
closeness, warmth, affection.
Prof Kajari Mukherjee, OB & HRM
81
Thank You
Kajari Mukherjee (Kajari@iimidr.ac.in)