prepared by @learntodayigcse IGCSE CHEMISTRY (short notes based on IGCSE past year questions) prepared by SAWIN KAUR RANJIT SINGH www.learntoday.me CHAPTER 1: THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER LIQUID SOLID freezing Particles have a regular arrangement & are close together. prepared by @learntodayigcse melting GAS evaporation boiling condensation Particles have a random arrangement & are close to each other. Explain changes of state in terms of kinetic theory. Particles have a random arrangement & are spread apart. * The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and liquid to gas depends on the strength of the forces between the particles of the substance. * The nature of the particles involved depends on the type of bonding and the structure of the substance. * The stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point of the substance. * The more kinetic energy (increased temperature) particles have, the more the movement, which causes a change of state from (S) to (L) to (G). Brownian Motion Particles in liquids & gaseous (known as fluids) move randomly (this is called Brownian Motion). This happens because they collide with other moving particles in the fluid. This is evidence for the kinetic particles model of matter it shows that there are individual particles which makes up solid/liquid/ gases. Rate of Diffusion of Gas • •• Question: Which gas will diffuse faster? And where will the white smoke be formed at ? 1. The mass of the particles. The particles in hydrogen chloride gas are twice as heavy as this in ammonia gas. The lower the mass of its particles, the faster a gas will diffuse. Hence, ammonia particles travels further than the hydrogen chloride particles (which means they have travelled faster). 2. The temperature. When a gas is heated, the particles gains heat energy and starts moving faster. Particles now collide with each other and moves further away from each other. This results the particles to move (diffuses) faster. Hence, the higher the temperature, the faster the gas will diffuse. Heating & Cooling Graphs C D prepared by @learntodayigcse What happens at B to C? E As the liquid is being heated, the particles gains heat energy and start moving faster. The temperature of liquid continues to rise. What happens at C to D. Why is the temperature constant? A B This phase consists of liquid+gas. Temperature is constant as the heat energy supplied is the same amount as heat energy absorbed to overcome the forces of attraction between molecules. This is called latent heat of fusion. What happens at B to C? As the liquid loses heat, the particles loses heat energy and starts moving slower. The temperature of liquid now slowly decrease. What happens at C to D? This phase consists of liquid+solid. Temperature is constant as the heat energy lost to the environment is the same amount as the heat energy released to form between molecules. A B C D E CHAPTER 2: EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES temperature, mass and volume? Appropriate apparatus for measuring Time : Stopwatch / Clock Temperature : Thermometer Mass : Balance Volume : Measuring cylinder, burette and pipette. prepared by @learntodayigcse Question: Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of paper chromatography - Paper chromatography : Used to separate mixtures and give information to help identify substances. Involves a stationary phase Separation depends on the distribution of substances between the phases. To carry it out: place a spot of each solution along a line drawn in pencil on slotted chromatography paper. Place a suitable solvent in the bottom of the beaker. Observe how far the substances travel up the paper. - How to calculate Rf ? Rf = distance travelled by solute distance travelled by solvent A - A = 7.2cm = 0.6 12cm B = 5.2cm = 0.43 12cm Methods of Purification Filtration If you have produced a precipitate (which is an insoluble salt) you would want to separate the salt/ precipitate from salt solution. Then, filter the solution, leaving behind the precipitate. B Crystallisation If you were to have produced a soluble salt and you wanted to You would first warm the solution in an open container, o prepared by @learntodayigcse separate the salt from the solution that it was dissolved in. evaporate, leaving a saturated solution. Allow this solution to cool. The solid will come out of the solution and crystals will start to grow, these can be collected and allowed to dry. Simple distillation Used to separate a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids Works when the liquids have different boiling points. Commonly used to separate ethanol from water. Ethanol has lower boiling point than water so it evaporates first. The ethanol vapour is then cooled and condensed inside the condenser to form a pure liquid. Sequence of events in distillations as follows : Heating > evaporating > cooling > condensing Fractional distillation The oil is heated in the fractionating column of the oil evaporates and condensates a number of different temperature. The many hydrocarbons in crude oil can be separated into fractions each of which contains molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms. The fractionating column works continuously, heated crude oil is piped at the bottom. The vaporised oil rises up the column and the various fractions are constantly tapped off at the different levels where they condense. The fractions can be processed to produce fuels and feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Isotopes Elements with same proton number but different nucleons number. Examples: Cobalt - 60 : a radiation source to treat cancer Iodine - 131 : destroys tumour cells Sodium - 24 : used to detect leakage in pipes Carbon - 14 : to estimate age of fossils and artifacts CHAPTER 3: ATOMS, ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS Relative charge & mass for P,N,E Proton Neutron Electron Relative mass I I prepared by @learntodayigcse Sub-atomic particles Definitions of atomic structure. Relative charge 1 +1 1 0 1 /1836 -1 Definitions for Structure of Matter 1) Proton number (atomic number) - The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom. 2) Nucleon number (mass number) - The total number of protons and nuetrons in a nucleus in an atom. 3) Relative atomic mass - Average mass of atom of an element. Number of atoms of the element contained in 12.00g of Carbon-12. Element Substance made of only one type of atom. And cannot be broken down into anything simpler. Compound Substance made from two or more elements that are chemically bonded. Ion Atom that bears one or more positive and negative electrical charges. Molecules Atoms join together by chemical bonds. Mixture Consists of two or more elements or compounds that are physically bonded together. Isotopes Atoms of the same element with same proton number but a different nucleon number. Bonding : The structure of Matter - Ionic Bond Metals: 1=1 Elements that loses electrons in order to form positive ions. Found towards the left and bottom of the periodic table. Non Metals: IT Elements that gains electrons in order to form negative ions. Found towards the right and top of the periodic table. 0 Question : Describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from Group 1 to VII Answer : 1. An ionic bond is formed when an electron is transferred from one atom to another. 2. When an ionic bond is formed between Group 1 and Group 7 : Group 1 atom losses electron to achieve stable (octet) state and forms +1 ion Group 7 atom gains the electron from Group 1 lost to achieve stable (octet) stable state and forms -1 ion. 3. The atoms are held together by strong electrostatic force. # Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular arrangement of alternative positive and negative ions. prepared by @learntodayigcse 1. Held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions, which are regularly arranged. 2. The forces act in all directions in the lattice, and this is called ionic bonding. Bonding : The structure of Matter - Covalent Bonds Question : Describe the formation of single covalent bond. Answer : 1. The sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas configuration. 2. For example, two atom of chlorine shares their electrons. Each of them shares one electron and forms single covalent bond. Double bond formation: Two atoms of Oxygen shares their electron to reach stable octet state. Each of them shares 2 electrons each. This form double bond. Question: Explain the differences between in melting point and boiling point of ionic and covalent compound. Answer : Ionic Bond - Strong electrostatic force between oppositely charged ions, requires a lot of energy to overcome the force of attraction. Hence, high melting and boiling point. Covalent Bond - Weak intermolecular forces between molecules, requires less energy to overcome forces. Hence, low melting and boiling point. However, for substances that consists of giant covalent structures are solids with very high melting and boiling points. All of the atoms in these structures are linked to other atoms by strong covalent bond, which must be overcome by melting and boiling at very low and high temperatures. Examples of giant covalent structures: * Graphite * Diamond * Silica Describe the macromolecular structure of silicon (IV) oxide 1. Each silicon atom is covalently bonded to. 4 oxygen atoms. 2. Each oxygen atom is covalently bonded to 2 silicon atoms. CHAPTER 4: THE MOLE CONCEPT "" "" MOLE (unit : mol) "* . Mass ÷ RAM X 24dm unit : gram or ÷ .. or 's 's 22.4dm Empirical Formula A chemical formula that shows the simplest ratio for each element in the compound. Example Question: 2.4g of Mg reacts with 7.1g of Cl to form Magnesium Chloride. Find empirical formula. Element Mass Mg Cl - Mole 2- 4g 71g - Ratio 2.4 71 24 35-5 I 2 # prepared by @learntodayigcse Quantity of Particles (atoms, molecules, ions) MgCl 2 C Mole Concept 1 dozen = 12 unites 1 mole = 6.02 x 10 units . 22.4dm Avogadro 's constant (NA) Volume unit : dm3 Molecular Formula A chemical formula that shows the exact number of atom for each of the element in the compound. Example Question Substance W has empirical formula CH and it’s relative 3 molecular mass is 60. Find its molecular formula. (Empirical formula)n = Molecular formula ( 14+1 ) M . f 60 n = h = ~> 4 (CHS )¢ ~> C4Hl2 co CHAPTER 5: ELECTRICITY & CHEMICAL CHANGES Oxidation: loss of e Factors affecting selective discharge Reduction: gain of e prepared by @learntodayigcse (1) Position in the electrochemical series. { < 40ft e- ✓ fitful cuattse → cu Observation: Brown solid deposited. → , n 2h20 -102 the ✓ ¥7 soit e- . ve - - Observation: Colorless gas formed. Test: Glowing wooden splinter. Ht , OH - Result: Reignites the gas. Famous question: observation of experiment: 1. The colour of solution blue to colorless. WHY? The concentration of Cu2+ ions decreases. (2) Concentration (of ions in the solution). Ht 2Htt2e→Hz , Nat / E E re ne - t - I ¥ ④=④ -0 Observation: Colorless gas formed. Result: Extinguishes with ‘pop’ sound. (3) Types of electrodes used. Observation: Formation of brown deposit. Cathode becomes thicker. custtae → A Ott , Cl E ✓ faith - ' copper cathode Bogota OH ( aatse at anode chloride ion will be discharged instead of hydroxide. At cathode, not affected, the hydrogen ion will be chosen. - will be discharged. - e . ? °o°!¥ v → None of these ions e ÷ - amount of sodium and chloride ions. Therefore, 1.0 mol/dm3 sodium chloride solution , Cl 1.0/dm3 means the solution contains high - •£gAmmaamgaq@" I A- Test: Burning wooden splinter. # Nat €0 ④ 0bservation: Greenish-yellow gas formed. foot # None of these ions will be copper anode mama Cust SOE , µ , on - Famous question: observation of experiment: 1. The colour of solution remains blue. WHY? The concentration of Cu2+ ions remains the same. - y chosen, the copper anode will dissolve by releasing electrons. cu → art tide Observation: Anode corrodes. Anode becomes thinner. Electroplating coat one metal with another, to prevent corrosion or make it look better. prepared by @learntodayigcse Electroplating means using electricity to Cathode: object that needs >e- grey deposition on the jug. Observation: Anode becomes thinner. Ages) → Agcaopte - Extraction of pure copper from impure copper. Cutt 2e → we ~ The cathode becomes Pure copper thicker. Brown solid coated on the electrode. - ve → Solution of a soluble compound X. e < Ae→Cu2tt2e . Impure placed at anode. e- ' ve n Impure copper Anode becomes thinner. The impurities are deposited at the bottom. Metal is transferred from anode to cathode. Mass of anode will be reduced, and cathode is increased. Colour intensity of the blue solution remains the same because the concentration of Cu2+ remains the same. Electrochemical cell. zn→2n2tt2e Ti e- a - (top) - negative electrode - = Potential difference. (V ) (bottom) - positive electrode Ages ) (Purification) g- Pure placed at cathode. Agtcaq) te - n than object that needs to be electroplated.) Observation: Forms a shiny e- e- Anode: metal X (metal which is more reactive to be electroplated. 7 F ve f y t - cu2tt2e→Cu CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL ENERGETICS Equilibrium * prepared by @learntodayigcse Forward reaction and backward reaction occurring at equal rates. → The amount/ moles/ concentration (of substances) remain constant. Factors affecting the position of the equilibrium. 1. The effect of concentration change. Ba A t Change in concentration of substance ' N2-5H2F2NH2ThmT Ct D Effect on the equilibrium of the reaction Equilibrium shifts to the direction that increases the Increase in the concentration of reactants (A&B) concentration of products by using up more of the reactants. Increase in the concentration of products Equilibrium shifts to the direction that increases the Equilibrium shifts right (yield of product increases) concentration of reactants by using up more of the products. (C&D) Equilibrium shifts left (yield of product decreases) Nz t 342¥ 2NH3 Example : Increasing the concentration of nitrogen will shift the equilibrium forward (right) which is the direction of producing more ammonia products and decreasing the nitrogen reactants itself (due to consumption). 2. Effect of temperature change. Increasing temperature makes the equilibrium move into the direction of taking in heat (endothermic reaction / the side which favours higher temperature). If the forward reaction is Effect on equilibrium of the reaction Increasing temperature Exothermic Equilibrium shifts to the endothermic Reactants increases direction (equilibrium shifts to the left) Endothermic Equilibrium shifts to the direction that favours high temperature (equilibrium shifts to the right) Products decreases Reactants decreases Products increases 3. Effect of pressure change. (for gaseous reaction) Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium into the direction in which there is decrease in volume (the direction which contains fewer gas molecules). Nz Total So ; 342 t I MOI 3 MOI : 4 ¥ 2NH3 2h01 Total : 2 Increasing pressure will shift the equilibrium to the side of less gas moles (less volume) so will shift to the right and production will increase. Decreasing pressure will shift the equilibrium to the side of more gas moles (more volume) so will shift to the left and production will decrease. CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL REACTIONS Difference between chemical and physical reactions. prepared by @learntodayigcse A. Physical changes Undergoing a physical change means no new substance are made, but there is a change to the appearance of a substance. Example: being made into a mixture - since they consists of elements/compounds they can be separated physically. Example: fractional distillation - also includes changing state or dissolving. B. Chemical changes Example: A process of rearrangement of the atoms present in the reactants to form one or more products, which have the same total numbers of each type of atoms as the reactants. Example: neutralisation, precipitation, rusting. Rate of Reaction The speed of a reaction where reactants are converted into products. 4%1 A B There are a number of different things or factors that can be changed to make a chemical, reaction faster. By using collision theory, it can explain how these factors can affect the rate of reaction. Collision theory Increase concentration of reactants increased d - DELENNion Collision theory states that, for a reaction two occur, particles must collide with each other. However, a random collision is not as effective as a successful collision. Increase surface area of reactants Increasing the surface area of solid reactants increases the number of particles that are exposed and available to react, and as a consequence this increases the frequency of particle collisions. Hence, increasing frequency of effective collision. Increasing rate of reaction. Increase temperature of reaction Particles y °o° TEES particle Increasing concentration will increase the number of particles of reactants per unit volume. Increases the frequency of collision. Gain oookeinetigg ios, . ice:O Higher temperature will cause particles to gain heat energy and move faster. Hence, - - the frequency of collision will increase. - Hence, increasing the frequency of effective Increasing the frequency of effective collision. Higher rate of reaction. - - collision. Higher rate of reaction. Increase pressure of reaction Use of catalyst in a reaction Increasing the pressure of a reaction A catalyst provides an alternative involving gases forces the gas particle route for the reaction, with a lower collision, and therefore increases the activation energy. This means that frequency of collision. Hence, higher particle collisions need less energy in frequency of effective collision. Higher order for a reaction to occur, rate of reaction. increasing the rate of the reaction. Redox - Oxidation and Reduction Method prepared by @learntodayigcse What is Redox? Redox is oxidation and reduction happenings simultaneously in a reaction. What is oxidation? Oxidation is the loss of electrons. What is reduction? Reduction is the gain of electrons. Oxidising and Redusing Agent. 1. Oxidising agent : 2. Reducing agent : OIL RIG Oxidation Oxygen + Oxidation Number t Hydrogen Reduction - - f- - Electron t - ④ ① = = gain I increase lose 1 decrease Example of Redox reaction Copper oxide loss oxygen Undergo reduction CuO is oxidising agent Mg + CuO MgO + Cu Mg gains oxygen Undergo oxidation Mg is reducing agent CHAPTER 8: ACIDS, BASES & SALT Salt + Hydrogen Acid + Base Salt + Water Acid + Metal Carbonate Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water Types of Oxides Basic Oxides ( can react with strong acid ) Oxides of Group 1 & 2 metals are basic (except BeO) They react with H O to make a basic solution. 2 Kao t H2O → 2 KOH H2O → Cac OH 72 Cao t Other examples : Na O, Li O, MgO, BaO 2 2 Acidic Oxides ( can react with Bases ) Most oxides of non metals are acidic 503 + 5042 Other examples : NO , NO , PO 3 Amphoteric Oxide ( can react with both Acid Al O and ZnO 3 2 Bases * Pb (Lead), Ba (Barium), Ca (Calcium) are all insoluble Rule 3 : All Chloride are soluble but “Please Ask Me” *Pb (Lead), Ag (Silver), Hg (Mercury). Rule 4 : All Hydroxide & Carbonate are INSOLUBLE * except if combined with Rule 1 Method C : Making Insoluble salt by Precipitation (double 5 Have both acid and alkali properties Rule 2 : All Sulphate are soluble but “Please Be Careful” alkali. Hs → H2O * Sodium, Potossium, Ammonium, Nitrates are all soluble. Method B : Preparation of Soluble salt by Titration using acid and HzCO3 → H2O Rule 1 : SPAN ALL SOLUBLE Method A : Add metal / base (excess powdered solid) with acid 2 t Solubility of Salt Preparation of Salt They react to its H O to make an acidic solution CO2 prepared by @learntodayigcse Acid + Metal ) & . decomposition) CHAPTER 9: THE PERIODIC TABLE More Electropositive (higher tendency to donate the valence electron) As it goes down the group 1. Atomic size increase 2. The valence electron moves further away from the nucleus 3. It becomes easier to donate electron 4. More reactive Across the Periodic Table prepared by @learntodayigcse Group 1 - Alkali Metal Group 7 - Halogens tendency to receive the valence electron) As it goes down the group 1. Atomic size increase 2. The valence electron moves further away from the nucleus 3. It becomes harder to receive electron 4. Less reactive Group 8 - Noble Gas Transition Elements * forms coloured compounds * have different oxidation number * can form complex ions Size decreases More Electronegative (lower * used as catalysts The atomic size on the same period gets larger across. As the same moves to the right, the number of protons increase. Hence, number of electrons increases as well. This increases the pull of nucleus (positively charged) and shells filled with electrons(negatively charged). Hence, the shells moves closer to the nucleus, causing the radius to decrease. *non reactive elements *outer shell has achieved duplex/octet state * exists as mono atomic gaseous. CHAPTER 10: METALS (1) Properties of Metals prepared by @learntodayigcse (B) chemical properties of metal: (A) physical properties of metal : * giant structure of atoms with strong metallic bonding. * to react metals will lose electron to form + ions * metal + oxygen -> metal oxide * high melting & boiling point * metal + acid -> salt + hydrogen * malleable * Famous question Question: Explain in terms of their properties, why alloys are used for buildings instead of metals? Pure metals have regular arrangements of rows of particles. Because of this, the layers are able to slide over each other easily, leaving metals malleable and soft. Alloys are made from 2 or more different metals. Hence, they have different sized atoms arranged together resulting in an irregular pattern of structure. This makes them harder to slide over each other and be broken down. as REACTIVITY SERIES (2) Extraction of Metals Process of Extraction - Extraction of iron in the blast furnace. 1. Carbon burns to form CO2. Extremely exothermic. Joe 2. As CO2 rises, it reacts with more C. It is reduced to CO. 3. CO reduces Fe CO3 to Fe. a COS Ct Oz 3CQ + cost C → 20 h%hemay¥ff 4. Limestone (CaCO3) undergoes thermal decomposition. tacos +302 Ca Ot CO2 Thinnestone 5. Calcium oxide will react with the main impurities which is SiO2 to form calcium silicate. Casi 03 ( Cao t si Os slag ) co Question: 1. At stage 3, why limestone is added? To remove silica to form slag. "" " Slag is less dense than iron, it is going to float on top of here. Molten iron will be denser hence goes down here. - Extraction of Aluminium prepared by @learntodayigcse y g- ' 1. Aluminium is mixed with cryolite to reduce - the melting point of Aluminium Oxide. Why? This can reduce the required operating bauxite At operating conditions (at the cathode, where it very hot and high pressure) the oxygen gas will immediately react with the Carbon of the Temperature. Therefore, less energy consumption leads to less money spent. Lesser CO2 emission Why is electrolysis done using molten mixture of Al2O3? Answer : Improves conductivity. anode to produce CO2. A byproduct of this process in total is CO2. As a result, the carbon anodes are constantly replaced (as it wears away) = high cost Economics consideration I 1. Large amount of electricity is required as Al3+ has high charge and operating temperature is 1000 degrees consuming a high electricity. 2. Large energy required and materials to produce and replace anodes, and to produce cryolite. Extraction of Zinc Environmental consideration 1. Noise pollution. 2. Air pollution from CO2 production. 3. Loss of landscape due to mining the materials). Zinc is extracted as an ore (with so many impurities). This are then crushed into tiny pieces and then we use process called froth flotation . Pure zinc won’t be produced. We will be getting ZnS or zinc blende instead. 22h (s ) Nbd this notes 302 t , o 22h06 ) t 250, Cg) Used to manufacture other things like H2SO4. CHAPTER 11: AIR & WATER prepared by @learntodayigcse 1. Hydrogen - The lightest element. How to obtain hydrogen gas? *colorless, odourless, soluble in *In the lab : Displacement water, unreactive *Fuel gas a Oxygen & Nitrogen can be separated from liquid air by fractional distillation 3. Sulfur - used in Contact Process to produce sulphuric acid. Obtained from fossilized fuels. / 2 atm dehydrating agent 503+142504 → H2S 07 ( oleum ) - . Hz 5207 Sulfur dioxide production by : 1. Heating Iron pyrite strongly in air. 4 Fess t 1102 → 212203 t 8502 2. Reacting transition element with sulphuric acid. Cu t Has 04 → Uses of Sulfur dioxide : Bleaching Preservatives for food Killing bacteria Fumigant Refrigerant Tanning (leather) cus Og t SO at H2O Reducing agent. Test: aqeous potassium manganat (VII) Results: purple solution turns colorless 2. Nitrogen reversible reaction This is known as Haber Process. Operating conditions : 450 C, 200atm, Iron filling as catalyst. Fertilisers as Higher % of Nitrogen = better Fertilisers * Methane ( CH )4 It’s found in gas deposits as natural gas. Cows for example gives out this gas. * Carbon Monoxide Poisonous gas formed when carbon compounds react with oxygen. Carbonates Lime prepared by @learntodayigcse When limestone is heated, it breaks down to lime. This process is called thermal decomposition. This reaffirm is reversible, therefore the calcium oxide and carbon dioxide could combine again. Slaked Lime Used to neutralise acidity in soil, and in lakes. Also, used to yeast for carbon dioxide. CHAPTER 14: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Inorganic (Don’t have C) Saturated (single bond) Hydrocarbons Organic (Have C) prepared by @learntodayigcse Carbon compound Unsaturated (double / triple bond) ORGANIC Hydrocarbons Alcohol Alkene Esters ( nH2nt2 A) Alkane Chthon Low melting & boiling point. Why? Weak intermolecular force. Less dense than water. Insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvent. Does not conduct electricity. intermolecular force. Less dense than water. Insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvent. Does not conduct electricity. Chemical Properties Chemical Properties 1. Combustion CO2 O2 2h20 t 1. Combustion 202 +302 Cg Hq 2h20 t 2. Addition 2. Substitution CH4 Rubber Physical properties : Low melting & boiling point. Why? Weak t Carboxylic Acid B) Alkene Physical properties : CHL, Isomerism Non hydrocrabons Alkane t CH za 92 C) Alcohol HCl t Chemical Properties 2002 t 2. Oxidation CHSCOOH GH 50 Ht 2[ O ] 3. Dehydration £ His OH C2H4 Cafta Brs Bra t ↳ Hq + H2O iv. Oxidation 1. Combustion - complete 302 CsH4 t H2O C3H8 pt iii. Hydration Volatile. Flammable. t Nickel C3H6 t H2 ii. Halogenation Cntlznti OH Physical properties : C2H50H i. Hydrogenation 3h20 t H2O C2H4 t " 31004 Cafta (OH )2 [ OJ v. Hydrogen Halide Catty t C2HsOH 300°C , 60 Atm GHS Cl HCl vi. Polymerisation C2H4 l l ee, n ( GHG ) ⇐ Itn D) Carboxylic Acid D) Ester Cntlznti COOH 1. Alcohol Fruity smell, used to make perfumes, Ca Hs COOH t ca C2H5 COO Cats Polymerisation used as solvents for many organic 3 t H2O Addition Condensation Macromolecules in food 1. Carbohydrates simple 3. Fats compound, make synthetic polymers. Making Nylon polyamide Making Terylene polyester 2. Protein condensation sugar Physical Properties prepared by @learntodayigcse Chemical Properties hydrolysis Condition : requires enzyme & acid Monomer - amino acid molecule. R stands for the rest of the molecule. condenstaion