prepared by @learntodayigcse
IGCSE CHEMISTRY
(short notes based on IGCSE past year questions)
prepared by
SAWIN KAUR RANJIT SINGH
www.learntoday.me
CHAPTER 1: THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
LIQUID
SOLID
freezing
Particles have a regular
arrangement & are close together.
prepared by @learntodayigcse
melting
GAS
evaporation
boiling
condensation
Particles have a random arrangement
& are close to each other.
Explain changes of state in terms of kinetic theory.
Particles have a random
arrangement & are spread apart.
* The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and liquid to gas depends on the strength of the forces between the
particles of the substance.
* The nature of the particles involved depends on the type of bonding and the structure of the substance.
* The stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point of the substance.
* The more kinetic energy (increased temperature) particles have, the more the movement, which causes a change of state from (S) to
(L) to (G).
Brownian Motion
Particles in liquids & gaseous (known as fluids) move randomly (this is called Brownian Motion).
This happens because they collide with other moving particles in the fluid.
This is evidence for the kinetic particles model of matter it shows that there are individual
particles which makes up solid/liquid/ gases.
Rate of Diffusion of Gas
•
••
Question: Which gas will diffuse faster? And where will
the white smoke be formed at ?
1. The mass of the particles.
The particles in hydrogen chloride gas are twice as heavy as this in ammonia gas. The lower the mass of its particles, the faster a gas
will diffuse. Hence, ammonia particles travels further than the hydrogen chloride particles (which means they have travelled faster).
2. The temperature.
When a gas is heated, the particles gains heat energy and starts moving faster. Particles now collide with each other and moves
further away from each other. This results the particles to move (diffuses) faster. Hence, the higher the temperature, the faster the gas
will diffuse.
Heating & Cooling Graphs
C
D
prepared by @learntodayigcse
What happens at B to C?
E
As the liquid is being heated, the particles gains heat energy and start moving
faster. The temperature of liquid continues to rise.
What happens at C to D. Why is the temperature constant?
A
B
This phase consists of liquid+gas. Temperature is constant as the heat energy
supplied is the same amount as heat energy absorbed to overcome the
forces of attraction between molecules. This is called latent heat of fusion.
What happens at B to C?
As the liquid loses heat, the particles loses heat energy and starts moving
slower. The temperature of liquid now slowly decrease.
What happens at C to D?
This phase consists of liquid+solid. Temperature is constant as the heat
energy lost to the environment is the same amount as the heat
energy released to form between molecules.
A
B
C
D
E
CHAPTER 2: EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
temperature, mass and volume?
Appropriate apparatus for measuring
Time : Stopwatch / Clock
Temperature : Thermometer
Mass : Balance
Volume : Measuring cylinder, burette and pipette.
prepared by @learntodayigcse
Question: Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of paper chromatography
-
Paper chromatography : Used to separate mixtures and give information to help identify substances.
Involves a stationary phase
Separation depends on the distribution of substances between
the phases.
To carry it out: place a spot of each solution along a line drawn in pencil on slotted chromatography paper. Place a
suitable solvent in the bottom of the beaker. Observe how far the substances travel up the paper.
-
How to calculate Rf ?
Rf = distance travelled by solute
distance travelled by solvent
A
-
A = 7.2cm = 0.6
12cm
B = 5.2cm = 0.43
12cm
Methods of Purification
Filtration
If you have produced a precipitate (which is an
insoluble salt) you would want to separate the salt/
precipitate from salt solution. Then, filter the
solution, leaving behind the precipitate.
B
Crystallisation
If you were to have produced a soluble salt and you wanted to
You would first warm the solution in an open container, o
prepared by @learntodayigcse
separate the salt from the solution that it was dissolved in.
evaporate, leaving a saturated solution. Allow this solution to cool.
The solid will come out of the solution and crystals will start to
grow, these can be collected and allowed to dry.
Simple distillation
Used to separate a pure liquid from a mixture of
liquids
Works when the liquids have different boiling points.
Commonly used to separate ethanol from water.
Ethanol has lower boiling point than water so it
evaporates first. The ethanol vapour is then cooled
and condensed inside the condenser to form a pure
liquid. Sequence of events in distillations as follows :
Heating > evaporating > cooling > condensing
Fractional distillation
The oil is heated in the fractionating column of the oil
evaporates and condensates a number of different temperature.
The many hydrocarbons in crude oil can be separated into
fractions each of which contains molecules with a similar
number of carbon atoms.
The fractionating column works continuously, heated crude oil
is piped at the bottom. The vaporised oil rises up the column
and the various fractions are constantly tapped off at the
different levels where they condense.
The fractions can be processed to produce fuels and feedstock
for the petrochemical industry.
Isotopes
Elements with same proton number but different nucleons number. Examples:
Cobalt - 60 : a radiation source to treat cancer
Iodine - 131 : destroys tumour cells
Sodium - 24 : used to detect leakage in pipes
Carbon - 14 : to estimate age of fossils and artifacts
CHAPTER 3: ATOMS, ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS
Relative charge & mass for P,N,E
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Relative mass
I I
prepared by @learntodayigcse
Sub-atomic particles
Definitions of atomic structure.
Relative charge
1
+1
1
0
1 /1836
-1
Definitions for Structure of Matter
1) Proton number (atomic number) - The number of
protons in a nucleus of an atom.
2) Nucleon number (mass number) - The total number of
protons and nuetrons in a nucleus in an atom.
3) Relative atomic mass - Average mass of atom of an
element. Number of atoms of the element contained in
12.00g of Carbon-12.
Element
Substance made of only one type of atom. And cannot be broken down into anything simpler.
Compound
Substance made from two or more elements that are chemically bonded.
Ion
Atom that bears one or more positive and negative electrical charges.
Molecules
Atoms join together by chemical bonds.
Mixture
Consists of two or more elements or compounds that are physically bonded together.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with same proton number but a different nucleon number.
Bonding : The structure of Matter - Ionic Bond
Metals:
1=1
Elements that loses electrons in order to form positive ions.
Found towards the left and bottom of the periodic table.
Non Metals:
IT
Elements that gains electrons in order to form negative ions.
Found towards the right and top of the periodic table.
0
Question : Describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from Group
1 to VII
Answer : 1. An ionic bond is formed when an electron is transferred from one
atom to another.
2. When an ionic bond is formed between Group 1 and Group 7 :
Group 1 atom losses electron to achieve stable (octet) state and forms +1 ion
Group 7 atom gains the electron from Group 1 lost to achieve stable (octet)
stable state and forms -1 ion.
3. The atoms are held together by strong electrostatic force.
#
Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular
arrangement of alternative positive and negative ions.
prepared by @learntodayigcse
1. Held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions, which are regularly arranged.
2. The forces act in all directions in the lattice, and this is called
ionic bonding.
Bonding : The structure of Matter - Covalent Bonds
Question : Describe the formation of single
covalent bond.
Answer : 1. The sharing of pairs of electrons
leading to the noble gas configuration.
2. For example, two atom of chlorine shares their
electrons. Each of them shares one electron and
forms single covalent bond.
Double bond formation:
Two atoms of Oxygen shares their electron to
reach stable octet state. Each of them shares 2
electrons each. This form double bond.
Question: Explain the differences between in melting point and boiling point of ionic and covalent compound.
Answer :
Ionic Bond - Strong electrostatic force between oppositely charged ions, requires a lot of energy to overcome the force of attraction.
Hence, high melting and boiling point.
Covalent Bond - Weak intermolecular forces between molecules, requires less energy to overcome forces. Hence, low melting and
boiling point. However, for substances that consists of giant covalent structures are solids with very high melting and boiling points.
All of the atoms in these structures are linked to other atoms by strong covalent bond, which must be overcome by melting and
boiling at very low and high temperatures.
Examples of giant
covalent structures:
* Graphite
* Diamond
* Silica
Describe the macromolecular structure of silicon (IV) oxide
1. Each silicon atom is covalently bonded to. 4 oxygen atoms.
2. Each oxygen atom is covalently bonded to 2 silicon atoms.
CHAPTER 4: THE MOLE CONCEPT
""
""
MOLE
(unit : mol)
"* .
Mass
÷ RAM
X 24dm
unit : gram
or
÷ ..
or
's
's
22.4dm
Empirical Formula
A chemical formula that shows the simplest ratio for
each element in the compound.
Example Question:
2.4g of Mg reacts with 7.1g of Cl to form Magnesium
Chloride. Find empirical formula.
Element
Mass
Mg
Cl
-
Mole
2- 4g
71g
-
Ratio
2.4
71
24
35-5
I
2
#
prepared by @learntodayigcse
Quantity of Particles
(atoms, molecules, ions)
MgCl
2
C
Mole Concept
1 dozen = 12 unites
1 mole = 6.02 x 10 units
.
22.4dm
Avogadro
's
constant (NA)
Volume
unit : dm3
Molecular Formula
A chemical formula that shows the exact number of
atom for each of the element in the compound.
Example Question
Substance W has empirical formula CH and it’s relative
3
molecular mass is 60. Find its molecular formula.
(Empirical formula)n = Molecular formula
( 14+1 )
M
.
f
60
n
=
h
=
~>
4
(CHS )¢
~>
C4Hl2
co
CHAPTER 5: ELECTRICITY & CHEMICAL CHANGES
Oxidation: loss of e
Factors affecting selective discharge
Reduction: gain of e
prepared by @learntodayigcse
(1) Position in the electrochemical series.
{
<
40ft
e-
✓
fitful
cuattse → cu
Observation: Brown solid deposited.
→
,
n
2h20 -102
the
✓
¥7 soit
e-
.
ve
-
-
Observation: Colorless gas
formed.
Test: Glowing wooden splinter.
Ht , OH
-
Result: Reignites the gas.
Famous question: observation of experiment:
1. The colour of solution blue to colorless. WHY?
The concentration of Cu2+ ions decreases.
(2) Concentration (of ions in the solution).
Ht
2Htt2e→Hz
,
Nat
/
E
E
re
ne
-
t
-
I
¥
④=④
-0
Observation: Colorless gas formed.
Result: Extinguishes with ‘pop’ sound.
(3) Types of electrodes used.
Observation: Formation of brown
deposit. Cathode becomes thicker.
custtae → A
Ott , Cl
E
✓
faith
-
'
copper cathode
Bogota
OH
(
aatse
at anode chloride ion will be discharged instead
of hydroxide. At cathode, not affected, the
hydrogen ion will be chosen.
-
will be discharged.
-
e
.
? °o°!¥
v
→
None of these ions
e
÷
-
amount of sodium and chloride ions. Therefore,
1.0 mol/dm3
sodium chloride
solution
,
Cl
1.0/dm3 means the solution contains high
-
•£gAmmaamgaq@" I
A-
Test: Burning wooden splinter.
#
Nat
€0
④
0bservation: Greenish-yellow gas formed.
foot #
None of these ions will be
copper anode
mama
Cust SOE
,
µ , on
-
Famous question: observation of experiment:
1. The colour of solution remains blue. WHY?
The concentration of Cu2+ ions remains the same.
-
y
chosen, the copper anode will
dissolve by releasing electrons.
cu → art
tide
Observation: Anode corrodes.
Anode becomes thinner.
Electroplating
coat one metal with another, to prevent
corrosion or make it look better.
prepared by @learntodayigcse
Electroplating means using electricity to
Cathode: object that needs
>e-
grey deposition on the jug.
Observation: Anode becomes thinner.
Ages) → Agcaopte
-
Extraction of pure copper from impure copper.
Cutt 2e → we
~
The cathode becomes
Pure copper
thicker. Brown solid
coated on the electrode.
-
ve
→
Solution of a soluble
compound X.
e
<
Ae→Cu2tt2e
.
Impure placed at anode.
e-
'
ve
n
Impure copper
Anode becomes thinner. The
impurities are deposited at the
bottom.
Metal is transferred from anode to cathode. Mass of anode will be
reduced, and cathode is increased. Colour intensity of the blue solution
remains the same because the concentration of Cu2+ remains the same.
Electrochemical cell.
zn→2n2tt2e
Ti
e-
a
-
(top) - negative electrode
-
=
Potential difference. (V )
(bottom) - positive electrode
Ages )
(Purification)
g-
Pure placed at cathode.
Agtcaq) te
-
n
than object that needs to be electroplated.)
Observation: Forms a shiny
e-
e-
Anode: metal X (metal which is more reactive
to be electroplated.
7
F
ve
f
y
t
-
cu2tt2e→Cu
CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Equilibrium *
prepared by @learntodayigcse
Forward reaction and backward reaction occurring at equal rates.
→
The amount/ moles/ concentration (of substances) remain constant.
Factors affecting the position of the equilibrium.
1. The effect of concentration change.
Ba
A t
Change in concentration of substance
'
N2-5H2F2NH2ThmT
Ct D
Effect on the equilibrium of the reaction
Equilibrium shifts to the direction that increases the
Increase in the concentration of reactants
(A&B)
concentration of products by using up more of the reactants.
Increase in the concentration of products
Equilibrium shifts to the direction that increases the
Equilibrium shifts right (yield of product increases)
concentration of reactants by using up more of the products.
(C&D)
Equilibrium shifts left (yield of product decreases)
Nz
t
342¥ 2NH3
Example : Increasing the concentration of nitrogen will shift the equilibrium forward (right) which is the direction of
producing more ammonia products and decreasing the nitrogen reactants itself (due to consumption).
2. Effect of temperature change.
Increasing temperature makes the equilibrium move into the direction of taking in heat (endothermic reaction / the side which
favours higher temperature).
If the forward reaction is
Effect on equilibrium of the reaction
Increasing temperature
Exothermic
Equilibrium shifts to the endothermic
Reactants increases
direction (equilibrium shifts to the left)
Endothermic
Equilibrium shifts to the direction that favours
high temperature (equilibrium shifts to the right)
Products decreases
Reactants decreases
Products increases
3. Effect of pressure change. (for gaseous reaction)
Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium into the direction in which there is decrease in volume (the direction which contains
fewer gas molecules).
Nz
Total
So ;
342
t
I MOI
3 MOI
:
4
¥ 2NH3
2h01
Total : 2
Increasing pressure will shift the equilibrium to the side of less gas moles (less volume) so will shift to the right
and production will increase.
Decreasing pressure will shift the equilibrium to the side of more gas moles (more volume) so will shift to the
left and production will decrease.
CHAPTER 7: CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Difference between chemical and physical reactions.
prepared by @learntodayigcse
A. Physical changes
Undergoing a physical change means no new substance are made, but there is a change to the appearance of a substance.
Example: being made into a mixture - since they consists of elements/compounds they can be separated physically.
Example: fractional distillation - also includes changing state or dissolving.
B. Chemical changes
Example: A process of rearrangement of the atoms present in the reactants to form one or more products, which have the
same total numbers of each type of atoms as the reactants.
Example: neutralisation, precipitation, rusting.
Rate of Reaction
The speed of a reaction where reactants are converted into products.
4%1
A
B
There are a number of different things or factors that can be changed to make a chemical, reaction faster. By using collision theory, it can
explain how these factors can affect the rate of reaction.
Collision theory
Increase concentration of reactants
increased
d
-
DELENNion
Collision theory states that, for a reaction
two occur, particles must collide with
each other. However, a random collision is
not as effective as a successful collision.
Increase surface area of reactants
Increasing the surface area of solid reactants
increases the number of particles that are
exposed and available to react, and as a
consequence this increases the frequency of
particle collisions. Hence, increasing frequency
of effective collision. Increasing rate of reaction.
Increase temperature of reaction
Particles
y
°o°
TEES
particle
Increasing concentration will increase the
number of particles of reactants per unit
volume. Increases the frequency of collision.
Gain
oookeinetigg
ios,
.
ice:O
Higher temperature will cause particles to
gain heat energy and move faster. Hence,
-
-
the frequency of collision will increase.
-
Hence, increasing the frequency of effective
Increasing the frequency of effective
collision. Higher rate of reaction.
-
-
collision. Higher rate of reaction.
Increase pressure of reaction
Use of catalyst in a reaction
Increasing the pressure of a reaction
A catalyst provides an alternative
involving gases forces the gas particle
route for the reaction, with a lower
collision, and therefore increases the
activation energy. This means that
frequency of collision. Hence, higher
particle collisions need less energy in
frequency of effective collision. Higher
order for a reaction to occur,
rate of reaction.
increasing the rate of the reaction.
Redox - Oxidation and Reduction
Method
prepared by @learntodayigcse
What is Redox?
Redox is oxidation and reduction happenings simultaneously in a reaction.
What is oxidation?
Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
What is reduction?
Reduction is the gain of electrons.
Oxidising and Redusing Agent.
1. Oxidising agent :
2. Reducing agent :
OIL RIG
Oxidation
Oxygen
+
Oxidation Number
t
Hydrogen
Reduction
-
-
f-
-
Electron
t
-
④
①
=
=
gain I increase
lose
1 decrease
Example of Redox reaction
Copper oxide loss oxygen
Undergo reduction
CuO is oxidising agent
Mg
+ CuO
MgO + Cu
Mg gains oxygen
Undergo oxidation
Mg is reducing agent
CHAPTER 8: ACIDS, BASES & SALT
Salt + Hydrogen
Acid + Base
Salt + Water
Acid + Metal Carbonate
Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water
Types of Oxides
Basic Oxides
( can react
with strong acid )
Oxides of Group 1 & 2 metals are basic (except BeO)
They react with H O to make a basic solution.
2
Kao t H2O
→
2 KOH
H2O
→
Cac OH 72
Cao
t
Other examples : Na O, Li O, MgO, BaO
2
2
Acidic Oxides
(
can
react with Bases )
Most oxides of non metals are acidic
503
+
5042
Other examples : NO , NO , PO
3
Amphoteric Oxide
( can react with both Acid
Al O and ZnO
3
2
Bases
* Pb (Lead), Ba (Barium), Ca (Calcium) are all insoluble
Rule 3 : All Chloride are soluble but “Please Ask Me”
*Pb (Lead), Ag (Silver), Hg (Mercury).
Rule 4 : All Hydroxide & Carbonate are INSOLUBLE
* except if combined with Rule 1
Method C : Making Insoluble salt by Precipitation (double
5
Have both acid and alkali properties
Rule 2 : All Sulphate are soluble but “Please Be Careful”
alkali.
Hs
→
H2O
* Sodium, Potossium, Ammonium, Nitrates are all soluble.
Method B : Preparation of Soluble salt by Titration using acid and
HzCO3
→
H2O
Rule 1 : SPAN ALL SOLUBLE
Method A : Add metal / base (excess powdered solid) with acid
2
t
Solubility of Salt
Preparation of Salt
They react to its H O to make an acidic solution
CO2
prepared by @learntodayigcse
Acid + Metal
)
&
.
decomposition)
CHAPTER 9: THE PERIODIC TABLE
More Electropositive (higher
tendency to donate the valence
electron)
As it goes down the group
1. Atomic size increase
2. The valence electron moves
further away from the nucleus
3. It becomes easier to donate
electron
4. More reactive
Across the Periodic Table
prepared by @learntodayigcse
Group 1 - Alkali Metal
Group 7 - Halogens
tendency to receive the valence
electron)
As it goes down the group
1. Atomic size increase
2. The valence electron moves
further away from the nucleus
3. It becomes harder to receive
electron
4. Less reactive
Group 8 - Noble Gas
Transition Elements
* forms coloured compounds
* have different oxidation number
* can form complex ions
Size decreases
More Electronegative (lower
* used as catalysts
The atomic size on the same period gets larger across. As the same moves to the right,
the number of protons increase. Hence, number of electrons increases as well. This
increases the pull of nucleus (positively charged) and shells filled with electrons(negatively
charged). Hence, the shells moves closer to the nucleus, causing the radius to decrease.
*non reactive elements
*outer shell has achieved
duplex/octet state
* exists as mono atomic
gaseous.
CHAPTER 10: METALS
(1) Properties of Metals
prepared by @learntodayigcse
(B) chemical properties of metal:
(A) physical properties of metal :
* giant structure of atoms with strong metallic bonding.
* to react metals will lose electron to form + ions
* metal + oxygen -> metal oxide
* high melting & boiling point
* metal + acid -> salt + hydrogen
* malleable
*
Famous
question
Question: Explain in terms of their properties, why alloys are used for buildings instead of metals?
Pure metals have regular arrangements of rows of particles. Because of this, the layers are able to slide over each other
easily, leaving metals malleable and soft.
Alloys are made from 2 or more different metals. Hence, they have different sized atoms arranged together resulting in an
irregular pattern of structure. This makes them harder to slide over each other and be broken down.
as
REACTIVITY SERIES
(2) Extraction of Metals
Process of Extraction - Extraction of iron in the blast furnace.
1. Carbon burns to form CO2. Extremely exothermic.
Joe
2. As CO2 rises, it reacts with more C. It is reduced to CO.
3. CO reduces Fe CO3 to Fe.
a
COS
Ct Oz
3CQ
+
cost C → 20
h%hemay¥ff
4. Limestone (CaCO3) undergoes thermal decomposition. tacos
+302
Ca Ot CO2
Thinnestone
5. Calcium oxide will react with the main impurities which is SiO2 to form calcium silicate.
Casi 03 (
Cao t si Os
slag )
co
Question:
1. At stage 3, why limestone is added?
To remove silica to form slag.
"" "
Slag is less dense than iron, it is going to float on top of here.
Molten iron will be denser hence goes down here.
-
Extraction of Aluminium
prepared by @learntodayigcse
y
g-
' 1. Aluminium is mixed with cryolite to reduce
-
the melting point of Aluminium Oxide. Why?
This can reduce the required operating
bauxite
At operating conditions (at the cathode, where it very hot and high
pressure) the oxygen gas will immediately react with the Carbon of the
Temperature. Therefore, less energy
consumption leads to less money spent.
Lesser CO2 emission
Why is electrolysis done using molten mixture of Al2O3?
Answer : Improves conductivity.
anode to produce CO2. A byproduct of this process in total is CO2.
As a result, the carbon anodes are constantly replaced (as it wears away) = high cost
Economics consideration
I
1. Large amount of electricity is required as Al3+ has high
charge and operating temperature is 1000 degrees
consuming a high electricity.
2. Large energy required and materials to produce and
replace anodes, and to produce cryolite.
Extraction of Zinc
Environmental consideration
1. Noise pollution.
2. Air pollution from CO2 production.
3. Loss of landscape due to mining the materials).
Zinc is extracted as an ore (with so many impurities). This are then crushed into tiny pieces and then we use
process called froth flotation . Pure zinc won’t be produced. We will be getting ZnS or zinc blende instead.
22h (s )
Nbd
this
notes
302
t
,
o
22h06 )
t
250, Cg)
Used to manufacture other things like H2SO4.
CHAPTER 11: AIR & WATER
prepared by @learntodayigcse
1. Hydrogen - The lightest element.
How to obtain hydrogen gas?
*colorless, odourless, soluble in
*In the lab : Displacement
water, unreactive
*Fuel gas
a
Oxygen & Nitrogen can be separated from
liquid air by fractional distillation
3. Sulfur - used in Contact Process to produce
sulphuric acid.
Obtained from fossilized fuels.
/
2 atm
dehydrating agent
503+142504 → H2S 07
( oleum )
-
.
Hz 5207
Sulfur dioxide production by :
1. Heating Iron pyrite strongly in air.
4 Fess
t
1102 → 212203 t 8502
2. Reacting transition element with sulphuric acid.
Cu
t
Has 04
→
Uses of Sulfur dioxide :
Bleaching
Preservatives for food
Killing bacteria
Fumigant
Refrigerant
Tanning (leather)
cus Og t
SO at
H2O
Reducing agent.
Test: aqeous potassium
manganat (VII)
Results: purple solution
turns colorless
2. Nitrogen
reversible reaction
This is known as Haber Process.
Operating conditions : 450 C,
200atm, Iron filling as catalyst.
Fertilisers
as
Higher % of Nitrogen
= better Fertilisers
* Methane ( CH )4
It’s found in gas
deposits as natural
gas. Cows for example
gives out this gas.
* Carbon Monoxide
Poisonous gas formed
when carbon compounds
react with oxygen.
Carbonates
Lime
prepared by @learntodayigcse
When limestone is heated, it breaks down
to lime. This process is called thermal
decomposition. This reaffirm is reversible,
therefore the calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide could combine again.
Slaked Lime
Used to neutralise acidity in soil,
and in lakes. Also, used to yeast for
carbon dioxide.
CHAPTER 14: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Inorganic (Don’t have C)
Saturated (single bond)
Hydrocarbons
Organic (Have C)
prepared by @learntodayigcse
Carbon compound
Unsaturated (double / triple bond)
ORGANIC
Hydrocarbons
Alcohol
Alkene
Esters
( nH2nt2
A) Alkane
Chthon
Low melting & boiling point. Why? Weak
intermolecular force. Less dense than water. Insoluble
in water and soluble in organic solvent. Does not
conduct electricity.
intermolecular force. Less dense than water. Insoluble
in water and soluble in organic solvent. Does not
conduct electricity.
Chemical Properties
Chemical Properties
1. Combustion
CO2
O2
2h20
t
1. Combustion
202
+302
Cg Hq
2h20
t
2. Addition
2. Substitution
CH4
Rubber
Physical properties :
Low melting & boiling point. Why? Weak
t
Carboxylic Acid
B) Alkene
Physical properties :
CHL,
Isomerism
Non hydrocrabons
Alkane
t
CH za
92
C) Alcohol
HCl
t
Chemical Properties
2002 t
2. Oxidation
CHSCOOH
GH 50 Ht 2[ O ]
3. Dehydration
£ His OH
C2H4
Cafta Brs
Bra
t
↳ Hq
+
H2O
iv. Oxidation
1. Combustion - complete
302
CsH4
t
H2O
C3H8
pt
iii. Hydration
Volatile. Flammable.
t
Nickel
C3H6 t H2
ii. Halogenation
Cntlznti OH
Physical properties :
C2H50H
i. Hydrogenation
3h20
t
H2O
C2H4
t
" 31004
Cafta (OH )2
[ OJ
v. Hydrogen Halide
Catty
t
C2HsOH
300°C , 60 Atm
GHS Cl
HCl
vi. Polymerisation
C2H4
l
l
ee,
n
( GHG )
⇐ Itn
D) Carboxylic Acid
D) Ester
Cntlznti COOH
1. Alcohol
Fruity smell, used to make perfumes,
Ca Hs COOH
t
ca
C2H5 COO Cats
Polymerisation
used as solvents for many organic
3
t
H2O
Addition
Condensation
Macromolecules in food
1. Carbohydrates
simple
3. Fats
compound, make synthetic polymers.
Making Nylon
polyamide
Making Terylene
polyester
2. Protein
condensation
sugar
Physical Properties
prepared by @learntodayigcse
Chemical Properties
hydrolysis
Condition : requires enzyme & acid
Monomer - amino acid
molecule. R stands for the rest
of the molecule.
condenstaion