community (Lipman-Blumen, 1996). Akin to constructive leadership, Parry (2002) validated a scale, Social
Processes of Leadership (SPL). SPL was about influence, processes, relationships, interactions, and position in
organized society. Parry found the scale highly correlated with various measures of transformational leadership.
A Hierarchy of Leader Effectiveness. Ordinarily, a hierarchy of effectiveness was found.
Transformational leadership was more effective than contingent reward; contingent reward was more effective
than active management by exception; and active management by exception might be positive or negative in
effect on subordinates’ performance but was more effective than passive management by exception. Laissezfaire leadership was correlated moderately to highly negatively in effectiveness. Similar results were found for
managers, project leaders, and staff professionals in a wide variety of firms and agencies (Bass, 1998) and in
many developed and developing countries on five continents (Bass, 1997).
Envisioning
Vision arose as a leadership concept in the 1980s as a response to the need for firms to adapt rapidly to
advancing technology and domestic and global competition (Conger, 2000). The concept of vision spread
rapidly to nonprofit agencies and had always been of consequence to politicians and statesmen. Sashkin (1986,
1988) detailed and assessed the visionary leader. Vision is a notable correlate of the transformational process
(Brown, 1993) and the transformational components of charismatic, inspirational, and intellectually
stimulating leadership. As noted in Table 22.1, envisioning is included in most theories of charismatic and
transformational leadership. The vision of the charismatic leader has both a stimulating and unifying effect on
the follower (Berlew, 1992). Visionary leaders have a sense of identity, direction, and strategy for
implementation (Nygren & Ukeritis, 1993). The vision is often a collaborative effort of a leader and
colleagues and ties together a variety of issues and problems. To maintain their emotional appeal, it is better
for a vision to be presented visually rather than only be posted or in writing (Hughes et al. 1993).
Purposes. Visions are goals that are forward-looking and meaningful to followers. They involve accurately
interpreting trends or articulating future-oriented organizational goals. They provide a road map to the future
with emotional appeal to followers. They help followers know how they fit into the organization (Bryman,
1992). They evolve in one or more of four ways from: (1) a leader with foresight who is sensitive to emerging
opportunities; (2) networks of insightful organizational members; (3) the accidental stumbling onto
opportunities and recognizing them; and (4) a process of trial and error with many experiences. They may be
value and mission statements. According to Sashkin (1988), the cognitive skills required for envisioning are:
expressing and sharing the vision with managers and employees in order to detail, revise, and review policies
and programs, and to monitor their effects. Most people can envisage near futures up to one year, but few can
think 10 to 20 years ahead, as might be required in a vision of the head of a large firm, political movement, or
military organization.
A vision serves as a guide for interim strategies, decisions, and behavior. “Vision provides the direction and
sustenance for change … and help us navigate through crises” (M. Hunt, 1999, p. 12). It is an important
function in the public as well as private sectors (Berger, 1997). It is fundamental to effective executive
leadership. Without the ability to define a desired future state, the executive would be “rudderless in a sea of
conflicting demands, contradictory data, and environmental uncertainty” (Sashkin, 1986, p. 2). A vision
integrates what is possible and what can be realized. It provides goals for others to pursue and drives and guides
an organization’s development (Srivastva, 1983). Vision is a mental model of a future state of the organization
(Nanus, 1992), an ideal image of the future (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). It connects beliefs about what can be
done in the future (Thoms & Greenberger, 1995). Mikhail Gorbachev, in the 1980s, envisioned a unified
Europe stretching to the Urals. By 2002, a step in this direction had been taken by Russia in accepting a seat as
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