Language Teaching and TechnologyZYXWVUTSRQPON
Z e in a b I b r a h im
IntroductiononmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
This chapter represents
an attempt
to raise and answer some questions
related primarily to technology and the teaching of Arabic as a foreign
language in developed and developing countries. In order to present this
study, a proposed guideline based on several pieces of research on the use
of different technologies in language teaching are briefly reviewed. These
are followed by research specifically investigating
the state of teaching
Arabic in the United States and Egypt.
The Internet
is replete with articles about the different technologies,
expenses, research, and case studies carried out in the field of linguistics,
online education,
the role of companies
in these technologies,
and so
on. However, as Brandl (2002,87) wrote, "What still remains rare, however, are models and guidelines that are based on theoretical
or empirical
research findings to guide teachers and teacher trainers towards pedagogically sound practices." Many works have discussed the history of CALL
(computer assisted language learning), which originated in the mid-twentieth century, and the different new terminology, that is, CELL (computer
enhanced language learning), and CAI (computer
"In the U.S., computer-assisted
assisted instruction).
instruction
was first used in the 1950S,
but examples of CALL are not documented
until the 1960s, when a num-
ber of projects were undertaken
to explore how the computer
used for foreign language instruction
in higher education"
could be
(Chapelle
2001,3). Szabo (1995, 190), while discussing the computer-assisted
pro-
gram PLATO (which was among the first CALL programs), emphasized
the importance
of planning for the future.
Teachers, who are in the depths of this sea of new computer-assisted
learning
technologies,
teaching
methods,
language
acquisition
theo-
ries, and other issues, need a hand to guide them to the shore, where
they can manage both their daily teaching jobs and some or all of the
above-mentioned
issues. The heart of the solution lies in the guidelines
that will direct teachers in making the appropriate
to be used at the appropriate
choices of devices
time for specific targets. This paper tries
to answer the question for teachers, which is not merely, "How do I use
technology?" but, more importantly, "What is the role of technology in
meeting the needs of learners in my classroom?" Drawing on a body of
research on current thinking about the role of technology applications
in that process, this paper presents a theoretical
uative information
model and some eval-
on using CALL in Arabic language classrooms. The
researcher poses a number of questions that can guide the teacher before
he or she decides to use a certain technology in a classroom, and discusses
the role of WebCT, and a reference
grammar website that addresses
vocabulary building, reading, writing, listening, speaking, and culture. In
addition,
the researcher
designed a questionnaire
to explore the views
and practices oflanguage teachers with regard to technology in the classroom. The results of fifty responses to the questionnaire
are presented at
the end of this chapter.
Challenges posed by technology
The overwhelming
issue facing language teachers
is that, in order to
stay up to date, they need to stay constantly connected
Dealing with the resulting flood of information
to the Internet.
requires full-time profes-
sionals. Teachers presently feel that the threat of technology surrounds
them from both online education and the need to stay updated on technological developments.
The need to stay up to date requires training,
massive amounts of reading, and the restructuring
of all drills to meet the
demands of this new phase. Literature has taken into consideration
some
but not all of teachers' fears. For example, online education is not seen as
a threat if educators draw a fine line between the use of technology inside
and outside the classroom. Many universities have tried online education
and recognized its value in solving the problems of overcrowded classes
and part-time
students
(Holley and Haynes 2003). Thus, online educa-
tion is not a replacement
and Gen state:A
2
Z e in a b Ib r a h im
for teachers but rather a teaching aid. Glahn
Online teaching, therefore, is not better than face-to-face teaching nor
is is worse; it is simply different. Both spaces are unique, each having
its own advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, the two teaching
environments are not mutually exclusive. They can both be used in the
same course at the same time without compromising or denigrating
the other. Indeed, they can form a synergistic union that strengthens
both. (Gahn and Glen 2002, 782)
Therefore,
both methods-the
old and the new-complement
each
other; each plays a distinctive role and strengthens the other.
The WH questions
The WH questions are: when, what, where, and why do we use technology inside and outside the language classroom? Warschauer and Healey
write that:
We can see that the use of computers has evolved tremendously in
the past thirty years-from
having students work on computer-fed
drills to students' long-distance communication and collaboration in
authentic research and multimedia publication. How do we see the
use of computers in the language classroom in the next 30 years? It
seems to us that there are two main directions worth exploring: (I) an
increased emphasis on electronic literacy, and (2) the increased incorporation of Intelligent CALL into the classroom. CWarschauer and
Healey 1998, 64)
What
really needs to be done is to provide language teachers
guidelines throughout
with
the process of bringing ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
I n te llig e n t C A L L into the
classroom. The crucial importance
of a classroom lies in the experience
of collective work between a community oflearners while optimizing the
benefits of technology. Glahn and Gen, addressing the issue, write:
The new models will combine face-to-face and online instructions to
deliver material previously taught solely face-to-face. Because these
new models will combine face-to-face and computer-based learning,
instructors will use instructional techniques best suited for teaching different content. These hybridized courses will allow instructors
to utilize computer-based technology selectively-to
Language
T e a c h in g
present case A
a n d T e c h n o lo g y
3
studies, tutorials, self-testing exercises, simulations, or other online
work in place of some lectures or lab material without relinquishing
classroom interaction. (Glahn and Gen 2002, 783)
Therefore,
before using technology in a classroom, the teacher needs to
ask the following questions:A
When do we use technology? (Which activities and tasks are
1-
assigned to it?)
Which level?
2-
3- Which equipment should we use?
4- Why?
5- Why not the old methods?
6- Why do it in class and not at home?
The language teacher also needs to be sure about the following general
points:
What is done in class cannot be done at home, particularly if we
consider the following questions: Is it a collective activity? Is it
evaluative or informative?
Is the in-class material appropriate to the level and to the time
assigned?
Does this activity link different skills and tasks?
As mentioned
above, the collectivity of in-class work is a very impor-
tant factor. Chapelle
hypothesizes
(2001, 32) states,
''A cultural constructivist
approach
that the experience crucial for individual cognitive devel-
opment takes place through interacting
with others, and therefore
key
evidence for the quality of a learning activity should be found in the discourse that occurs in the collaborative environment."
This chapter simply poses some guiding questions, which may change
over the course of time, to the teacher. As Glahn and Gen
state, ''Among these changes is a movement
administrators
This movement
to re-examine
for both
(2002,
778)
educators
and
how courses are designed and delivered.
would ask us to adopt a paradigm
of inquiry about
educational practices, realizing that these ideas and practices are in constant formation
The approach
and always in need of investigation
conforms to the American
and refinement."
Council on the Teaching of
Foreign Languages (ACTFL) guidelines (http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/
4
Z e in a b Ib r a h im
GUAG ELEARNING/Other
Resources/ ACTFLProficiencyGuideli
nesffheACTFLGuidelines.htm).
The different technological toolsZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDC
At
the time of writing, the following are some of the tools that are com-
monly in use. Of course, no one knows what other tools will become
available in the coming weeks and months.A
I-
Networks/communications
Learning management systems such as WebCT/Blackboard
Internet
Extranet
Intranets
Satellite receiver-s
2-
Equipment
Computers
Overhead projectors
Television
DVDplayers
CD players
Webcams
iPods
Personal Response System (FRS)
TabletPCs
Recorders
Smart boards
3- Software
Concordancer
Course management systems
Verma and Parikh (2001, 31) define the terms intranets
as follows: "Intranets
extranets
are used for internal
are used for communications
and extranets
communications,
with customers,
while
suppliers and
strategic partners."
Each of these can be utilized in the language classroom, achieving a
goal in a way that traditional methods cannot. One of the greatest advantages of these tools, as Berge and Collins (1995, 3) state, is that "it will
become apparent that one of the greatest benefits of CMC (computer
mediated communication)
is its ability to liberate instruction
from the
L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g a n d T e c h n o lo g y
5
constraints
of time and distance. The convenience
school, or office permits
many students
of access from home,
and instructors
to better
meet
travel, job, and family responsibilities."
Video conferencing
could mean that a sick student who cannot come
to class could still attend
at home and, therefore,
it if s/he has the necessary
technological
tools
could almost be present in class. It can also allow
students to attend lectures even if they are in another continent.
Furthermore,
as Gonzalez-Lloret
(2003, 98) has written,
ers, especially those studying less commonly
have many occasions to interact with NNSs {non-native
cially in classroom
settings. Therefore,
speakers}, espe-
pair work and student-centered
activities could be an efficient and beneficial substitute
ers." In other words, this technology
"Most learn-
taught languages, may not
for native speak-
adds to the benefit of both teaching
and learning.
This study does not question
the benefit of new technology, as many
previous studies have done. On the contrary, this new technology
is a real-
ity present and fully integrated
into our lives. Salaberry states that:
{T}he (rapid) introduction
of new technologies brings about a height-
ened level of complexity in the analysis of pedagogical options. In
order to assess and outline the pedagogical opportunities
brought
about by new tools, in the short period of time in which these tools are
put to use, it is necessary to have access to multiple and diverse perspectives. (Salaberry 200!, 52)
In the following section, various examples are introduced
in an attempt
to answer the previously asked WH questions.
WebCT, Blackboard,
Web Course in a Box (WCB), and Top Class are
examples of course management
tools. They have many features that can
assist both students and teachers in the course. Stoel and Lee explain,
A secure Web site is created and students, faculty, and teaching assistants enter a password to access the site from the Internet, or a college
intranet using a Web browser. Several communication
discussion
tools, such as
e-mail, bulletin
boards, threaded
vide interaction
between and among students and faculty. A calendar
is available that can be updated frequently
and chat rooms proand customized
for the
course. Various tools exist for faculty to create and make available A
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Z e in a b Ib r a h im
e content and learning aids, for example, a glossary, quizzes and
-
-rests, references and a wide variety of content material such as
guided outlines or lecture visuals. Course management is another valule function provided by these applications, allowing faculty to track
~ des, gauge student interaction, and assess student use of the tools.
toel and Lee 2003, 365)
_ Iorss (1999, 393) carried out an experiment
in Creighton University
oring "the educational benefits and burdens to the students of such
classroom adjunct." This study examines student attitudes toward
use of WebCT. One of the interesting
findings of this research, in
. .on to the ones listed below, was that older students did not like the
of this new tool.
_ Iorss's experiment was carried out over a period of three semesters to
the university deal with overcrowded classes. WebCTwas
ct to the traditional
classroom learning environment
used as an
(Morss 1999,
- -. The finding of the experiment is valuable as Morss states:
From the data available in this survey, WebCT
computer-aided
instruction in the liberal arts environment:
is not time-consuming or burdensome to the students;
helps at least some of the students focus their attention on
the subject and learn more quickly;
is not favored to immediately replace either text or
conventional textbooks as the preferred method of
instruction;
provides an important exposure to the technology associated
with many disciplines. (Morss 1999, 404)
WebCT, or any other tool of its kind, is an excellent course management tool, which should be utilized in all language courses. If these
courses are not online, they should be used mainly outside the classroom.
_
Volery and Lord (2002, 219) state, "WebCT is an integrated Web pub-
. hing environment
specifically tailored for the design and development
of teaching and learning materials. WebCT is a tool that facilitates the
creation
of sophisticated
World Wide Web-based
educational
environ-
ments. It can be used to create entire online courses, or to simply publish
materials that supplement
existing courses." It becomes evident that the A
L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g a n d T e c h n o lo g y
7
main role of WebCT
one. Instructors
in language classroom
courses is a supplementary
need to be aware of the differences
between
supplemen-
tary material and an online course.
Students
can create their own e-portfolios.
have all their reading-aloud,
monitor
the progress
achieved during the semester.
e-mail with assignments
conferences.
For example, students
speaking, or writing assignments
It also allows voice
for both teachers and students.
However, from personal teaching experience,
educational
to
on speaking or it can even be used for individual
It can resolve time problems
that supplementary
can
recorded
the researcher
suggests
materials are better placed on the main server of the
institution
for technical
reasons, such as problems
accessing
WebCT. For the same reasons, it is advisable to use an iPod for listening
and reading aloud practice.
A brief overview of the tools has been presented,
ful perspective
but the most use-
is to examine the use of specific tools in the context of the
various functions
of Arabic language instruction.
Grammar
The
traditional
writing,
McCarthy
language
yet grammar
emphasizes
skills are listening,
is an integrated
reading,
and embedded
the need to teach grammar
speaking,
and
part of them all.
to foreign language
learners, arguing that:
students' awareness of grammar and confidence in their ability to use
it provide them with a powerful tool both for communication
expression, and therefore for communication.
and
And deprived as they
are, by definition, of the experience of developing primary thought
patterns and of generally functioning within the linguistic norm of a
community of native speakers using the language constantly for selfexpression, interaction
and social survival, foreign language learners
need all the tools they can get. (McCarthy 1996, 19)
McBride reinforces McCarthy's
claim:A
Grammar and grammar teaching are no longer thought of in terms of a
taboo subject. This is borne out by the fact that conferences and journals in recent years have dedicated large sections of their programs
to questions of the role that grammar may play in L2 learning and
8
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teaching. Not only is there a renewed interest in grammar and its usefulness in the learning process, there is also an awareness that research
needs to address these questions in a systematic manner. No doubt
the perception that contemporary students in higher education show
marked deficiencies in grammatical accuracy has led to this renewed
interest in grammar. (McBride 1997, 17)
This point was noticed by the researcher
and all her colleagues, in
particular, concerning the acquisition of Arabic language skills. The need
to address this deficiency with the aid of technology is crucial to advancing the teaching of Arabic as a foreign language. Language accuracy is a
must in the higher levels oflanguage and it is not only limited to writing,
but relates to oral proficiency as well.
Therefore,
the researcher would like to call for international
collab-
oration to design a reference grammar website for Arabic. As McCarthy
(1996,21)
put it: ''All material is textbook-independent
(important
in view
of the time and resources invested in developing the material, the fact
that the material is intended to be support for the course rather than the
course proper, and the tendency for course textbooks to change every five
years or so)."
Such a website could be used at all levels and by institutions
where.
It would have all the grammatical
accompanied
every-
rules listed in a glossary
by drills ranging from simple to complex. As McBride and
eago have done in the University of North London with English grammar (they have provided instruction
in French, German, Italian, Spanish,
and EFL), explanations could be provided in as many other languages as
are needed. Such a website, although it sounds extremely expensive to
create and administer, would actually save a lot of time and money as it
would allow many instructors
aiding students
all over the globe to put their time into
rather than designing such material themselves. Such a
website would become a student's first port of call when they come across
a point of grammar that they need to strengthen.
Although the following suggestion has not yet to my knowledge been
the subject of research, if tried, it might prove successful. The. personal
response system (PRS) is a system in which the teacher poses a multiple
choice question to students. The teacher has a control panel and each student has a remote control with which to record his/her response. Through
the board, the teacher can then see how many students choose the correctA
L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g a n d T e c h n o lo g y
9
or incorrect answer. The PRS can be used successfully in grammatical
inside the classroom.
Students
drills
are often too shy to answer out loud and
such a system definitely assures the teacher that all students
have left the
classroom with a good understanding
and discussed
of the rules presented
in class. For example, the classroom system could work in such a way that,
after each question
is voted on, a student
who has answered
correctly
would (knowing that their answer is correct) then present the justification
for the chosen answer. If this is repeated,
then the student who has not
grasped the rule or is confused, will have everything
clarified. This is col-
lective work that engages all students and the drills are valid for all levels.
Vocabulary-building
In the Arabic language, vocabulary-building
between
grammar
actually lies in the middle
and reading. The morphological
system that the stu-.
dents learn in Arabic helps them in forming and deriving new words. New
technology
is a savior in this respect,
Warschauer
and Healey write:
for both teacher
and the student.
Drills do have a place in language learning; particularly in the first
stages of vocabulary acquisition where giving the same information
in multiple modes, such as visual plus aural plus textual, enhances recognition and recall. More sophisticated
error-checking
can provide
students real help in the feedback they receive, directing them to further practice or moving them to the next stage. Those who do need
extra help with those aspects of language that improve with practice
can use small, focused programs to give them additional time and assistance outside of regular class time. (Warschauer and Healey 1998, 55)
Also, concordances
can help because students
are able to see several
examples using the same vocabulary item, thus reinforcing
Like the idea mentioned
their learning.
in the grammar
section, a reference vocabu-
lary site could be designed showing different
examples of a word's usage
together with its pronunciation
to help the learner achieve a higher degree
of accuracy.
Reading
First, we should
distinguish
between
free reading
(for example,
surfing the Net) and guided reading that will take the student
10
Z e in a b Ib r a h im
while
from one A
Ievel to the next. Gitsaki and Taylor (1999, 48), citing Berge and Collins
I995), write: "Without
teacher guidance and student-centered
activities,
computers will do little to help students learn English." In other words,
instructors can utilize both methods as part of a well-defined plan.
Gitsaki and Taylor write:
Furthermore, using the internet is fun. Websites are full of animation,
colour, sound, pictures, interactive forms and digital video clips, adding
[Q
the students' motivation and helping them enjoy the learning pro-
cess. Using the Internet has become part of our life and learning how
to use it is an essential skill for students, so through the use of computers and the internet students develop basic Information Technology
(I1) skills (for example, word processing skills, web-browsing skills,
retrieval of information from on-line archives and databases) and learn
English at the same time. (Gitsaki and Taylor 1999, 47-48)
Before answering the WH questions, it is important to look at Brandl's
posirion following an experiment
in which he looked at three different
proaches to reading using the technology. Brandl wrote that:A
[ T jh e
approach to reading instruction
in the example above is
nothing new, and one might ask the question, what are the actual
advantages of the Internet-based reading activities over the reading
activities based on authentic printed resources. There are benefits
that are unquestionable
to both instructors
and students, which
make such application worthwhile. Reading is a silent process that
is best done individually. The learners get to explore authentic reading material outside of class at their own pace. This frees up class
time that can be spent more effectively getting students involved in
communicative language learning activities. Furthermore,
depend-
ing on the instructional program design, students' answers may be
automatically tallied and forwarded to the instructor. The strongest
argument, however, for providing online reading might be that the
online environment allows one to take advantage of a vast amount
of images and the hypermedia functions to attach text and images in
particular. (Brandl 2002,
90)
L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g a n d T e c h n o lo g y
11
In addition
to all the above-mentioned
ing, there are other instances
know, a good student
advantages
in which technology
to online read-
is required. As we all
is a good guesser; so, for example,
some of the reading material requires
that a student
it may help if
guesses the mean-
ings of words. For such an exercise to succeed, the following requirements
should, however, be met in advance: the words should be mentioned
eral times and their context
using a concordancer
sev-
should reveal their meaning. In such a case,
is beneficial
since the student
will simply click on
each word and read all the contexts in which the word occurs.
We have answered
software
technologies
now why we should use technology
and which
to use, but where should we use them: inside or
outside class?
As mentioned,
class activities should be collective. Therefore,
it is advis-
able that such exercises be done once in class to familiarize the students with
them, and subsequently
at home; otherwise,
they can be used in exams or
in timed reading exercises. If this type of reading is used in class, which is
valid for all levels, it should use True or False questions or multiple choice,
as it is evaluating the student's reading skill and no other. Although there is
In te llig e n t C A L L , I have not heard so far about a program
the notion of using ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
that can correct grammatical and stylistic mistakes in Arabic. The tools available at the time of writing correct spelling and some grammatical errors.
Computers
can also be used with training
scanning. Such activities
students
in skimming
dents have carried out the tasks in the time assigned and without
the dictionary,
and
should be done in class to ensure that the stu-
since the teacher can have access to all students'
ers through the teacher's computer
using
comput-
software.
Guided reading may be used at all levels, but, at the same time, some
collective
in-class activities
states, "The open-ended
requires
to exploring
and advanced
to the questionnaire
the Internet
showed, beginners
nition of the Arabic alphabet,
(2002,
95)
resources
in their language
approach
language learners."
in other ways. Simple Internet
simple tasks appropriate
Internet-based
to have a solid foundation
skills. This makes the project-based
ate for intermediate
response
approach
language learners
proficiency
should be used as well. As Brandl
most appropriHowever,
can also benefit
as one
from
sites can be used for recog-
reading signs from Arab streets, and other
to their linguistic level.
It is advisable that when extensive or intensive reading is required, that
it be done at home. This allows students
12
Z e in a b Ib r a h im
to work at their own pace and A
pracrice drills other than the required ones. Thus students with higher
potential
linguistic abilities can progress faster and move to a higher
Ievel, while those who are going more slowly do not feel embarrassed in
e classroom. Internet-based
we
homework
reading material should pro~
the answers to the students after they have finished their reading so
t instead of wasting class time, students only resort to asking questions
en they are unable to deduce answers from the Internet.
All levels of student can use the Internet
to collect and present data
d the methods can differ. At the beginner level, they can work in groups
.de class and at the more advanced levels this can be done at home.
Chapelle
(200I)
illustrates how a reading assignment is worked on in class
collaboratively when students use their computers
prepared
in class, answer the
questions and then (circulate the answers among themselves).
Then they all participate in discussion.
istening
The same rules for reading can be applied here. IPods, DVDs,
and
selected material from the satellite media can be used inside and outside
me classroom. These tools allow the students
to listen as many times
they need or wish to. They also ensure a very high quality of sound.
_lultiple~choice
open-ended
and true-and-false
questions
questions
can be done in class, but
should be done outside the class as they involve
writing, which requires more time, as well as typing skills in Arabic.
Timed listening,
quizzes, and training
the students
on phonologi-
cal or grammatical clues in listening are listening activities to be carried
out in the classroom. An e-portfolio will help both teacher and student
o recognize weaknesses, strengths, and learning progress. Hoven, while
mentioning
the advantages of using technology in listening cornprehen-
sion, adds another dimension:
The importance of providing learners with timely, task-specific feedback in LC (listening comprehension) practice is widely acknowledged.
Because of perception and recall constraints in LC, the availability of
immediate feedback can be a distinct advantage. Another advantage
of a CELL (Computer-Enhanced
Language Learning) environment
relates to the necessity for learners to be exposed to the same text
from different perspectives and with emphasis on different aspects in
order to fully comprehend a listening text. (Hoven 1999, 91)A
L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g a n d T e c h n o lo g y
13
In other words, the same text can be seen or heard from different
angles. For example, a single news story can be watched
or heard on dif-
ferent websites and television channels.
Live watching
or listening is not without
limitations,
however. It is an
activity that can be carried out in the classroom, but the slow learner can
be frustrated.
Technology
provides us with remedies
action on the part of the instructor.
time of watching,
post questions
that require
quick
Live programs can be recorded
at the
but then the instructor
needs to quickly formulate
on the same day for the students.
The distinct
and
element
here is the live aspect of the program; other than that, it is a replica of the
prepared
material
{or that which requires
no technological
only pen and paper}. Longer passages with open-ended
given at home to allow students
equipment,
questions
can be
the time needed.
Speaking
There are programs
manufacturered
the computer,
(Real Time Pitch, CSL {Computerized
by Kay) for the elementary
the pronunciation
and their own pronunciation
shows a graph indicating
pattern
Speech Labs}
level, which show students,
on
of the sound by a native speaker
after they record it. The computer
the native speaker's pronunciation
screen
and students
can then compare it with their own. The student keeps on trying until his/
her graph looks exactly like that of the native speaker. The whole class can
do it simultaneously,
but each student
difficult. The teacher's
presence
can work on the sounds s/he finds
is valuable to help those who are having
difficulty. In this way, each student
is working on his/her own difficulties
and no one feels that s/he is wasting class time.
WebCT can be a very helpful tool in this activity as students
their assignments
through it and receive their teacher's
it as well. Videoconferencing
is another
can send
feedback through
good tool (though an expensive
one) as it can allow students to speak with native speakers of the language
in other locations.
However, the teacher, in my opinion, remains the most important
tool
in this in-class activity.
Writing
If students
of Arabic as a foreign language are required to type everything
then we will face a serious problem.
ferent shapes depending
14
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Since many letters in Arabic have dif-
on their position
in the word, the students
willA
be missing an important
element of the Arabic language, which is how to
write in Arabic without using a computer. This is a point that needs scholarly discussion to establish the direction
for future developments.
opinion, learning Arabic typing can start from high elementary
students
In my
level after
have mastered writing the alphabet by hand. The latest technol-
ogy has introduced
to us the Tablet PC, in which one writes by hand and
the script is transformed
Internet
into typing.
chatting poses a serious problem as it has given rise to two new
issues. First, writers now use a kind of mixed variety between the standard
and the colloquial (dialect). Also, the Internet
new genre of ,shorthand'
Warschauer
has seen the creation
messages, which ignore many grammatical
and Healey mention
programs
of a
rules.
that can help students
in
the writing process. They add that:
Although much of what is done at the computer can be done in other
ways, some activities are far more productive with the resources that
the computer can bring to bear. Text reconstruction
is a good example.
A teacher can create a sentence jumble by cutting up pieces of paper,
but programs such as NewReader from Hyperbole can do it painlessly.
With a paper cloze, students who get stuck on a word have to give up
completely and look at the whole text (or ask the teacher individually
for a specific answer); on the computer, they can get a letter or word as
a hint and go on. Both NewReader from Hyperbole and Text Tanglers
from Research Design Associates can create a variety of text reconstruction activities for a plain-text word-processed
expanding
any classroom
reading that
document, greatly
the teacher
has prepared.
(Warschauer and Healey 1998, 57)
Currently, there is no program
can correct writing,
teach stylistics,
as a hint. However, as Warschauer
tools, such as reconstructing,
The development
WebCT
or provide
the learner with a word
and Healey (1998) have argued, some
can be very effective
of programs
dering, and connectors
advancement
available for the Arabic language that
in teaching
for spelling, word matching,
writing.
word reor-
drills for the teaching of Arabic are crucial for the
of the field.
also allows for the correction
voice remarks.
Projectors
tive correction
of writing assignments
are a valuable
of writing
teaching
through
assignments
with
aid, and the collec-
computers
and required A
L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g a n d T e c h n o lo g y
15
software is another
prepared
in-class activity. However, instructors
for the new writing tasks required
have to be
by the new technology,
including the need to train their students on how to compose a website
orwebpage.
Culture
A crucial point in the study of any language is culture. Some consider it
a fifth skill and others consider it a fifth dimension; it remains fully integrated in all of the language skills. New technology can playa distinctive
role by using DVDs, satellite, films, videos, and any other new technology that will allow the student not only to learn about, but also view,
an important
and integral part of culture: kinesics. "The term kinesics
refers to communicative movements such as facial, hand, and other body
expressions or gestures that accompany, complement,
or replace verbal
utterances" (Warschauer and Healey I998, 90). There are also proxemics,
which refers to the degree of physical distance acceptable in a culture,
including touching and other phonological elements such as prosody, intonation, and rhythm (Warschauer and Healey I998, 90). Students watching
authentic material on all these elements will definitely be able to acquire
better communicative skills.
The questionnaire
The questionnaire
was designed to investigate the attitudes
tors of Arabic toward using new technology. Thirty
Egypt and the United States responded
sisted of questions
to it. The questionnaire
asking if they use computers,
satellite, iPods, webcams, concordancers,
Blackboards
of instruc-
instructors
Internet,
from
cone-rnail,
PRS, Tablet PC, or WebCTI
in their classrooms. They were also asked to cite situa-
tions in which they use these technologies. The instructors
from Egypt
all came from a national (not private) university to represent the status
quo. The most interesting
instructors
part is that eight out of the fifteen Egyptian
refused to fill out the questionnaire,
saying that all their
answers would be 'no.' The other seven indicated that they use Internet,
e-mail, iPod, and sometimes webcams in their personal lives, but not in
the language classrooms, as they simply do not have smart classrooms.
All the American instructors
indicated that they use most of the men-
tioned devices. Some of their written
responses about when and why
they use technology are reproduced below:A
16
Z e in a b Ib r a h im
To engage students.
presentations
I ask my students
to send me their oral
through e-mail so I correct it with sound and e-mail
it back to them.
To enhance their learning. I correct the students' writings through
e-mail with my voice as if we are having an individual conference.
When it facilitates learning.
For variety or to pique the interests
Whenever
of the students.
it helps us achieve our goals in a better way.
Some materials are better presented
which motivate students
using technological
aids
more and make the material more
presentable.
Students can learn about the culture through reading different
websites.
Students can hear all different varieties of Arabic by watching
the satellite.
Web-based
tasks where students can go to sites that are live, up
to date, and relevant to their world.
Reading tasks that involve complicated
visual elements such as
pictures, which are difficult to reproduce
on paper, so we use
the Web.
Learning styles are different
from one student to another.
Technology helps by using images, sounds, writing, and so on. In
many cases, the use of technology
is better received by learners
who actually use it on a daily basis.
I think technology
is best used for most things outside the
classroom, or at least during .time when students
can work at their
own pace. I think it is less useful to use technology when trying to
keep the class together. Students should work individually or in
pairs on tasks and the teacher should be a resource.
It is therefore
clear that the gap between teaching Arabic in the United
States and in an Egyptian national university
is huge. This simply implies
that the state of the art will not by any means be similar in the near future
except if a drastic change happens in which an immediate
use of technology
other problem
increasing
takes place within
Egypt's national
is that these technologies
application
and
universities.
The
are evolving rapidly as well as
in number, so the need to catch up with all these innovations
poses a real challenge to instructors
in national universities
in Egypt. In A
L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g a n d T e c h n o lo g y
17
this respect, this chapter
has described
the reality on the ground for the
field of Teaching Arabic as a Foreign Language (T AFL) in Egypt.
Conclusion
''At this point, what is most clear as a result of research
tend to enjoy using computers,
identify
the factors involved in using software
teaching.
Teachers
will continue
effectively
for language
to refine their techniques
with CALL
over time and, it is hoped, continue
in the area" (Warschauer
is that students
and that we need much more work to
to contribute
to research being done
and Healey 1998,61). This chapter has aimed to
answer some of the questions
that will help language instructors
before
going into the classroom with regard to how, when, and why to use these
technologies
in grammar, vocabulary-building,
ing, and culture absorption.
reference grammar website and another
translation
reading, listening,
speak-
It has made the case for creating a worldwide
for vocabulary
in several languages. It has identified
that could include
some of the deficiencies
found in Arabic language learning software. finally, it highlights the reality
of educational
institutions
nologies and questions
where no funding is available to use the tech-
the future prospects
of such institutions.A
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