Tthhjjkk
Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
References:
1- Thermodynamics, Kinetic theory and Statistical thermodynamics
( Sears, Salinger, 3 rd. edition 1976 )
2- Thermodynamic demystified
( Merle- C. Potter, 2010)
3-Thermodynamics: Fundamentals and its Application in Science,
( Ricardo Morales – Rodriguez, 2012).
4- Concept in thermal Physics, ( Stephen J. Blundell and Katherime
M. Blundell, 2006)
5-Engineering thermodynamics, ( Wayne Hacker, 2009)
6- Lecture Notes on thermodynamics , ( Joseph M. Power, 2018)
List of word depend on solution the examples of thermodynamics
1- Calculate
2-Explaine
3-State
4-Mention
5-indetail
6-Properties
7-variable
8-Include
9-Contain
10-Form
11- Depend on
12-Molecules
13-Occupy
14-Expand
15-Required
16-Metal
17-rod
18-Iron
19-Copper 1
‫اات‬
Tthhjjkk
Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Thermodynamics
Introduction:
Thermodynamics: is the branch of natural science concerned with heat and
its relation to energy and work. The term of thermodynamics mean thermo
and dynamics and thermodynamics have main branch called classical and
statistical thermodynamic.
A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of
thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis. The first law specifies that
energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work. The
second law defines the existence of a quantity called entropy, that describes
the direction, thermodynamically, that a system can evolve and quantifies
the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful
work that can be extracted from the system.
Q: Why we study thermodynamic?
Thermodynamic studied is useful because it help to:
1- Studies the more movement of heat between different objects.
2- it studies the change in pressure and volume of objects.
3- Enables one to derive relationships that quantitatively describe the nature
of the conversion of energy from one into another.
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Branches of thermodynamics
1-Classical thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic
systems at near-equilibrium, that uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It
is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the laws of
thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the
first level of understanding of the subject as it developed in the 19th century
and describes the changes of a system in terms of macroscopic empirical
(large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic interpretation of
these concepts was later provided by the development of statistical
mechanics.
2-Statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics, also called statistical thermodynamics, emerged with
the development of atomic and molecular theories in the late 19th century
and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics with an
interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or
quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of
individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of
materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining
classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical
mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Thermodynamic system
Is precisely macroscopic region of universe , define by boundary or walls
of particular nature , together with physical surrounding of that regions
which determine processes that are allowed to affect the interior of region
,studied using the principles of thermodynamics .
System: is a region containing energy
Surroundings: it’s the region which lies outside the boundaries of
system i.e. The area around system
Boundary: its separated the system from its surrounding.
The boundary may be a real or imaginary surface covering the region .
Boundaries Types:
We classify boundary into one of three kinds.
1- Real Boundary: Like a container containing any material (closed system)
2- Imaginary Boundary: like cloud in atmosphere (open system)
Universe: The term which including the system and its surrounding.
I.e. Universe = System + Surrounding
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
System types:
We classify system into one of three kinds according to their interaction
with their surroundings.
Open system
Closed system
Isolated system
A system can exchange
matter and energy
With its surroundings
A system can exchange
energy but not matter
With its surroundings
System can exchange
neither matter nor energy
with its surroundings
Note: there’s another type of system
Adiabatic system: its occurs without transfer of heat or mass of substances.
i.e. the amount of heat equal Zero .
An example, isolated steam turbine.
Half opening system: it’s the system which allowed to entry and exit of the
mass only, an example Gas cylinder.
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
System closed in one time and open in another time: an example is an
internal combustion engine (ICE).
Total System: it’s a large and complex system that can be fragment and
then collect the part of the system an example, closed power station
Basic Definitions:
1- Intensive quantities:
Is one whose value is independent of the mass of system. Example (pressure,
temperature, density).
2- Extensive quantities:
Is one whose value dependent of the mass of system. Example (volume,
internal energy, entropy).
 The ratio of extensive quantities to the mass of a system is called
Specific value of that quantity.
: Specific volume
 The specific volume is the reciprocal of density
3- Area : Is the size of a surface
Area of circle
Where D= Diameter of the piston circle
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Example
Prove the area of the piston of circle given by
A = π r2
D= 2 r
r = D/2
A = π ( D/2)2
Example:
Find the surface area of the upper surface of the piston, diameter
(0.67mm)
Example:
Piston diameter (67mm), the length of its movement (90mm). Find the
displaced volume during its movement.
4-Energy :
Energy is defined as the capability to produce an effect. It is important to
note that energy can be stored within a system and can be transferred (as
heat, for example) from one system to another. In thermodynamic the energy
is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
5- Pressure:
Pressure is a force applied in direction appendicular to the surface of an
object .
unit
6- Volume :
Is the quantity of three – dimensional space enclosed by some closed
boundary.
7- Density:
Density, an intensive property, is defined as the ratio of the two extensive
properties mass and volume
i.e. its mass per unit volume
8-Heat: kind of energy
9- Temperature :
Temperature is a quantity which indicates how hot or cold the body is.
10- Triple Point:
The single combination of pressure and temperature at which liquid water,
solid ice, and water vapor can coexist in a stable equilibrium occurs at
exactly temperature equal 273.16 K and pressure (0.01 bar)
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Temperature Scale:
We can divided into three part
1- Celsius temperature scale: Celsius temperature scale, also called
centigrade temperature scale, scale based on ( 0C°) for the freezing
point of water and (100 C °) for the boiling point of water, The
temperature for this scale is denoted by ( tc°) or (t) and its unit (C°)
2- Fahrenheit temperature scale:, scale based on( 32F°) for the freezing
point of water and (212F°) for the boiling point of water, The
temperature for this scale is denoted by ( tf°) and its unit (F°)
3- Absolute temperature scale : it’s the scale that depend on the
temperature at which the amount of energy stored inside the body
completely vanish , this scale is used in thermodynamic calculation .
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Absolute temperature scale can refer to :
- Kelvin scale, an absolute-temperature scale related to the Celsius
scale
K=C+273.15
- Rankine scale, an absolute-temperature scale related to the
Fahrenheit scale
R=F+460
Absolute Zero:
It is the coldest possible temperature it is correspond to -273.16 Co
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Relation between temperature scales.
The temperature of an object is measured on the Celsius and
Fahrenheit scales can be divided by the shape below, It divides the
Celsius scale into 100 degrees and Fahrenheit into 180 degrees
According to proportion relation
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Thermometer:
An instrument for measuring temperature, the type of thermometer used to
measure depends on the thermometric substance and thermometric property.
Expression the thermometer property:
Any physical property is denoted by the symbol X, the temperature
represents by a liner function with the amount of thermometric property
Where a is constant
The ratio between two different temperature degrees is equal to the ratio of
its correspond values of property
Relationship to measure temperature depending on triple point
At triple point, property of the thermometric denoted by the symbol
, where
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Classification of Thermometer
The classification is depending upon the physical property of the substance
that varies with temperature
1. Liquid Thermometers: These thermometers are based on the thermal
expansion of liquids.
Principle: The increase in length of the liquid (like mercury )in the glass
bulb is directly proportional to increase in the temperature.
Where L is the length of liquid column
Lo is the length of liquid column at triple point
2. Gas Thermometer
a. Constant volume gas Thermometer: These thermometers are based on
the thermal expansion of gases at constant volume.
Principle: The increase in pressure of a gas at constant volume is directly
proportional to increase in the temperature
Where P is the pressure of gas
Po is the pressure of gas at triple point
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
b. Constant pressure gas thermometer: These thermometers are based on
the thermal expansions of gases at constant pressure.
Principle: The increase in volume of a gas at constant pressure is directly
proportional to increase in its temperature.
,
Where V is the volume of gas
Vo is the volume of gas at triple point
3 . Electric Platinum resistance thermometer
These thermometers are based on the variation of electric resistance of
metals with temperature. These thermometers usually employ platinum as
the thermometric substance.
Principle: The increase in resistance of a platinum wire is directly
proportional to increase in its temperature.
ΔR α ΔT
Where R is resistance of a platinum wire
Ro is resistance of a platinum wire at triple point
4. electric resistance thermometer
Where R is resistance of thermometer
Ro is resistance of thermometer at triple point
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
5. Thermocouple thermometer
The
thermometric
property
Depend
on
electromotive
force
Where ƹ is electromotive force of Thermocouple thermometer
ƹ o is electromotive force of Thermocouple thermometer at
triple point
Summary
Thermometer
Thermometer Property
Liquid thermometer
length of liquid column
Gas thermometer
Pressure and Volume
Electric Platinum thermometer
electric resistance thermometer
Resistance
Resistance
Thermocouple thermometer
electromotive force
Example:
If the length of a column of mercury in mercury thermometer equal to
6Cm at triple point of water. What is the length when the thermometer
registers 300 K?
Example:
Convert (-1Co) from Celsius to Fahrenheit and Kelvin?
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
QUANTITY OF HEAT
Is define as the amount of heat need to make as standard change,
it measured in unit calorie or joule.
Calorie: is defined as the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water by 1ºC (one degree)
1cal= joul
Concept of heat capacity:
Its quantity of heat required to raise the temperature a unit degree.
i.e.
Unit J/k
,
for different temperature
Where T1 is the initial temperature, T2 the final temperature, and Q12
quantity of the heat added to substance while heating it from temperature T1
to temperature T2.
Heat capacity is not a constant quantity, it changes with temperature.
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
There is two form of heat capacity for gas according PVT system
(A)Heat capacity at constant volume
(B) Heat capacity at constant pressure
It represents the amount of heat
required to raise the system
temperature by dT at constant
pressure
It represent the amount of heat required
to raise the system temperature by dT at
constant volume
, symbolized by the symbol Cv
Where Cv is a function of temperature
Cv=f(T)
𝐶𝑣
𝜕𝑄
𝑉
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑈
𝜕𝑈
𝐶𝑣
𝜕𝑇
𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 𝑣
𝜕𝑄
𝑉
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑄
So
𝜕𝐻
𝑝
𝜕𝐻
𝜕𝐻
𝐶𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝑝
𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 𝑝
Or
𝜕𝐻
Or
𝜕𝑈
Cp=f(T)
𝐶𝑝
In reversible process At constant volume
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑈
So
Where Cp is a function of temperature
𝐶𝑝𝑑𝑇
𝐶𝑉𝑑𝑇
Note: H called Enthalpy, it the sum of
intenal energy and Pv
𝐻
17
𝑈
𝑃𝑉
Tthhjjkk
Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Example:
Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
aluminum metal block with heat capacity of 460 JK-1 from 15 to 45 oC?
Example:
How many Joules of heat are given out when a pieces of iron of mass 50
gm and specific heat capacity 460 J/Kg.K, cools from 80 to 20 oC?
Specific Heat Capacity:
Is the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of unit mass through a
unite degree.
or
unit J/kg.k
Note: specific heat =specific heat capacity
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
H.W/ what is the relation between Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
Example
What quantity of heat is required to raise the temperature of 450 grams of water
from 15°C to 85°C? The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C.
We wish to determine the value of Q - the quantity of heat. To do so, we would use
the equation Q = m•C•ΔT. The m and the C are known; the ΔT can be determined
from the initial and final temperature.
T = Tfinal - Tinitial = 85°C - 15°C = 70.°C
With three of the four quantities of the relevant equation known, we can substitute
and solve for Q.
Q=m•C•ΔT=(450g)•(4.18J/g/°C)•(70.°C)
Q=131670J
Q = 1.3x105 J = 130 kJ
H.W:
A block of metal of mass 1.5 Kg which is suitably insulated is heated from 30 to 50
o
C in 8 minutes 20 seconds by an electric heater coil rated 54 watts find
1- The quantity of heat supplied by heater.
2- The heat capacity of the block.
3- it is specific heat capacity.
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Example
A 12.9 gram sample of an unknown metal at 26.5°C is placed in a Styrofoam cup
containing 50.0 grams of water at 88.6°C. The water cools down and the metal warms up
until thermal equilibrium is achieved at 87.1°C. Assuming all the heat lost by the water is
gained by the metal and that the cup is perfectly insulated, determine the specific heat
capacity of the unknown metal. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C.
m = 50.0 g
C = 4.18 J/g/°C
Tinitial = 88.6°C
Tfinal = 87.1°C
ΔT = -1.5°C (Tfinal - Tinitial)
Solve for Qwater:
Qwater = m•c•ΔT = (50.0 g)•(4.18 J/g/°C)•(-1.5°C)
Qwater = -313.5 J (unrounded)
(The - sign indicates that heat is lost by the water)
Part 2: Determine the value of Cmetal
Given:
Qmetal = 313.5 J (use a + sign since the metal is gaining heat)
m = 12.9 g
Tinitial = 26.5°C
Tfinal = 87.1°C
ΔT = (Tfinal - Tinitial )
Solve for Cmetal:
Rearrange Qmetal = mmetal•Cmetal•ΔTmetal to obtain Cmetal = Qmetal / (mmetal•ΔTmetal)
Cmetal = Qmetal / (mmetal•ΔTmetal) = (313.5 J)/[(12.9 g)•(60.6°C)]
Cmetal = 0.40103 J/g/°C
Cmetal = 0.40 J/g/°C
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Heat Transfer:
Heat moving from body to another in three ways depending on the type of
material
Methods Of heat transfers
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
1- Conduction
Conduction occurs when the particles in one part of an object vibrate more, and these
vibrations are passed on from particle to particle through the object.
The particles do not actually move along the length of the object, they merely pass along
the increased vibration. That the difference in temperature between two regions in an
object leads to a continuous exchange (distribution) of temperature, the transition continues
until it reaches a constant value.
Example:
Why the solid material is better conductors than liquid material?
Because the particles in a solid are packed closer together
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
The law of conduction
It shows that the amount of heat transferred is proportional to the amount of temperature
Where
𝐝𝐐
𝐝𝐭
∝ 𝐀
𝐝𝐐
𝐝𝐭
𝐓
𝐗
−𝐊𝐀
𝐓
𝐗
Q= quntity of heat
K= Thermal conductivity of the matel
A= Area
T= temperature ( Thot – Tcold ) difference between two end
X= thickness ( length )
t=time
𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 (dT/dx) : the rate of change of temperature with distance .
Current heat ( dQ/dt) : quantity of heat per time .
Note:
*The current heat is directly proportional to the temperature change and area
*A negative signal indicates that the heat is moving in the direction in which the
temperature decreases
* (K ) is thermal conductivity
* Current temperature =heat current =(dQ/dt)
H.W: Find the unite of thermal conductivity ( K) ?
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Example:
According to figure,
the length of copper rod (10 cm ) with area (1Cm2) at T1= Co and T2 =
100 Co, thermal conductivity of copper is 0.92 cal/sec .Co m find:
1- The temperature gradient.
2- The current temperature in the rod.
Solution
−
2- Convection:
Convection is the spread of heat due to the movement of particles in liquid and gases .
The law of convection
H = h A ΔT
H= Convection current
h= Convection coefficient
A= Area
ΔT= difference of Temperature (T2 – T1)
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
3- Radiation:
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by invisible waves and does not need
material to travel through.
The law of radiation ,
*For Black Body:
R= σ T4
Stefan – Boltzman
Where
σ = 5.57*10-8
J/m2. Sec (degree)4
Watt/m2 . (K)4
*For not black body:
R= e Aσ T4
e= emissivity
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Thermal Equilibrium: Two bodies are said to be at thermal
equilibrium of they are at the same temperature.
i.e. this mean there is no net exchange of thermal energy
between the two bodies .
Ex/ two objects are contact, they are different temperature.
i.e. They are not in thermal equilibrium and energy is flowing from the
hot side to clod side.
The two objects are at the same tempture and therefore are in
thermal equilibrium .
i.e. there is no net flow of heart energy .
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
States that if two system are at the same time in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
i.e. zeroth Law : If the two object A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with a third object C separately, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium between them.
Note : thermodynamic it defines (macroscopic variables ) such as
Temperature
26
pressure
volume
Tthhjjkk
Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Process: Any change in the thermodynamic coordinates of the system
The type of process thermodynamics
1. Isothermal process: It is the process happen at constant
temperature (T =constant , dT =0 )
2. Isobaric process: It is the process happen at constant pressure
(P =constant
, dP =0 )
3. Isochoric process: It is the process happen at constant volume
(V =constant
, dV =0 )
4. reversible process: It is an ideal process (all thermodynamic
parameters are balanced at any point) and it is reversible upon
request.
5. Irreversible process: It Regularitydifference between
thermodynamic coordinates (a process that cannot be reversed on
request)
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Q: what are the properties of ideal and real gas?
(A) Ideal Gas
*It is a gas that does not exist or is considered (a real gas at a low
pressure 1 - 2 atmosphere)
* It is a gas that has properties that do not apply another gas
*The collision between the molecules of an ideal gas is a flexible
collision with high speed (the attractive forces between its
molecules are absent or small)
(B) Real Gas
*it is gas whose molecules have spaces between their
*The internal energy of real gas is a function of pressure and
temperature U=f(P,T)
*Examples of real gas include hydrogen H, nitrogen N, carbon
dioxide Co2, or air as a mixture and water vaporH2O.
H.W: Find the specific volume of ideal gas?
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Equation of state : it is an equation that relates on the variable of
thermodynamic to each other .
The most general form for an equation of state is f( P,v,T)
The ideal gas of equation of state
The real gas of equation of state
(A)The ideal gas of equation of state
(B)The real gas of equation of state
It is usually written in form
It represent by Vander waals equation
PV=nRT
(P+)(V-b)=nRT
R= called Gas constant =8.314J/mol.k
P=pressure
V=volume
T=temperature
n=
*all gases obey the ideal gas equation of
state in the limit as pressure goes to
zero .
*the equations state of ideal gases
PV=RT
Notice that Vander waals equation of
state differs from the ideal gas by
addition of two adjustable parameter a
and b . These parameter are intended
to correct for omission of molecular
size and inter molecular attractive
force in the ideal gas equation of state .
PV=nRT
(the parameter b corrects for the finite
size of molecules and the parameter a
,corrects for the attractive
force
between the molecules.
PV=NKT
‘
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
H.W: prove PV=NKT
H.W: Find the unit of constant of gas (R)?
Work
In general the mechanical work define : is amount of energy transferred by a
force F acting throug distance ds .
 
W  F.S
 Fs cos 
 -Fs cos 
Notes:
* A negative sign indicates that the direction of the resulting displacement is
opposite to the direction of the force
*Work in thermodynamics is energy that transfer from one body to another
*Q: It means the amount of heat transferred to and from the system
*W: Work performed by or on the device
* The study of the processes interaction between the device and its
surroundings takes place through work and heat represents the topic around
which thermodynamics study.
* Expression of work with the thermodynamic system, The work can be
linked with some force, but it is more appropriate to express this work with
thermodynamic variables P,V,T
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Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Calculate work in thermodynamic process
(work done during volume change )
Force exerted on the Piston
F  PdA
The work done
dW  F .dS
dW  PdAdS
dW  PdV
Vf
W  P  dV
Vi
31
The work done in a finite volume change
Vi =initial volume
Vf =final volume
Tthhjjkk
Thermodynamics
Dr.Sanar Gasid
Work depend on path
The work can be calculated by using the graph method, as it equals the area
under the curve that represents the relationship between gas pressure and
volume, which is called a (P-V) diagram
And it appears from diagram there are many paths to transfer the gas from
its initial state to the final state
(1) Direct path
(2) The path
(at constant pressure)
(3) The path
(at constant volume)
- The Work in the first state represents the area
- The Work in the second state represents the area
These two areas are different
So the work performed does not depend on the initial state and the
final state of the system, but also on the intermediate states
between them (i.e. depends on the path)
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Dr.Sanar Gasid
Work for the thermal process
*the work for isochoric process
V  cons tan t
V  0
W   PV
W 0
*the work for isobaric process
P  cons tan t
v2
W 
 PV
v1
v2
W  P  V
v1
W  P V2  V1 
W  PV2  PV1
*the work for isothermal process
T  cons tan t
v2
W 
 PV
(1)
v1
PV  nRT
P
put eq (2)in eq (1)
V
V
v1
v2
W  nRT
W  nRT ln V
33
nRT
V
(2)
Tthhjjkk
Thermodynamics
34
Dr.Sanar Gasid
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